MCAT Prep - 2

Instructions:

• Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
• If you are not ready to take this test, you can study here.
• Match each statement with the correct term.
• Don't refresh. All questions and answers are randomly picked and ordered every time you load a test.

This is a study tool. The 3 wrong answers for each question are randomly chosen from answers to other questions. So, you might find at times the answers obvious, but you will see it re-enforces your understanding as you take the test each time.

1. The path from blood plasma to urine

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2. Sensory - motor neurons are part of which nervous system
Peripheral nervous sys
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons


3. trypsin is secreted by
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue


4. How does water cross the apical membrane
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors


5. these transport proteins - when concs are high enough...
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
5


6. medium for paracrine hormones
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
Arrested at primary oocyte; hypothalamus GnRH->FSH released at puberty stims granulosa cell development; granulosa secrete zona pellucida = primary follicle
Processes: axons - dendrites


7. lysosome main function and derivation
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
Direction of differentiation
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi


8. sensory (afferent) neurons
Many modern drugs are ligands for GPCRs
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)


9. What is secreted into filtrate by cells of the proximal tubule?
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases


10. How does reabsorption force nutrients across apical membrane of proximal tubule
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
Notochord (mesoderm) induces ectoderm to thicken into neural plate --->neural tube --->spinal cord
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)


11. exocrine types
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Which is why lactase - maltase - dextrinase - sucrase are on brush border
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal


12. What are phagosomes
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion


13. Where does the juxtaglomerular apparatus come into play...renin --->inc angiotensins -->inc aldosterone - ups BP
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...


14. What is an endorphin?
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
An endogenous morphine


15. PNS review: SAME DAVE
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein


16. Local vs long - distance mediators
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons


17. oxytocin
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
Posterior pituitary hormone; acts on uterus - mammary glands; causes uterine contractions - milk ejection
Inner lining of circulatory system


18. Path of urine

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19. calcitonin

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20. hypothalamus controls anterior pit - posterior pit release with inhibitory/releasing hormones of its own; these should have fairly self - explanatory names
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine
Arrested at primary oocyte; hypothalamus GnRH->FSH released at puberty stims granulosa cell development; granulosa secrete zona pellucida = primary follicle
Gall bladder - pancreatic secretions increase - arrive via ampulla of vater (duct glands); insulin secretion increases (fed state; ductless glands)


21. FLAT PG: ACTH
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'


22. What hormones affect the stomach?
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal


23. After meiosis II - Female

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24. important pancreatic enzymes
Carbohydrates are highly hydrated: one water mol per carbon mol - fats are anhydrous: contain more reduced carbons per unit mass - altogether fats contain 6X energy per unit mass
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption


25. Difference between euk and prok flagella
Digestion
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots
Bacterial flagellin: hollow filament (not microtub); euk: 9+2 microtubule w/dynein bridges
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation


26. Peritoneal refers to...
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Fovea (highest amount of cones)


27. chylomicron concentration in blood after meal
Peak at 1-2hr after meal; chylomicrons themselves have half - life of about 1hr after formation in enterocytes
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback


28. What Changes - Doesn't Change as a result of movement of molecules across membranes in the proximal tubule
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood
Inner lining of blood vessels
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons


29. Which fats are not absorbed like this
Stims release of tyrosine - derived horms T3/T4 (increase basal metabolic rate); TSH increases thyroid cell size - number - rate of T3/T4 synth -----> thus - iodine deficiency causes swollen thyroid due to lack of neg feedback onto TSH in anterior pi
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera


30. On what surface of the retina is the eye most sensitive
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
Eukaryotes
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest


31. quote on cavities/viscera

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32. Where else does ADH act
Break down TAGs to monoglycerides and free fatty acids
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins


33. Blastocyst
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Chylomicrons are much bigger
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on


34. mucus cells line the stomach...
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
Break down TAGs to monoglycerides and free fatty acids
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)


35. What is the endothelium?
ER
Inner lining of circulatory system
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient


36. from thoracic duct - chylomicrons stick to capillary walls...
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)


37. PNS is broken down into
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys
'Microvilli function as the **primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract**. Because of this vital function - the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compoun
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...


38. From that point...
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine


39. axon hillock physiology
Conjunction of cell body w/axon
Fallopian tubes
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
Outer ear= pinna (auricle)- external auditory canal - eardrum (tympanic membrane) inner ear= malleus - incus - stapes - ...oval window - cochlea - where sound is transduced into neural signal...enters cochlea at scala vestibuli - where pressure chang


40. Determination is different than differentiation
'Microvilli function as the **primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract**. Because of this vital function - the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compoun
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate


41. Luteal surge
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae


42. What is somatostatin
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
Digestion


43. fat digestion is time - intensive
Organs
Injury that does not sever SC (causes deep lesion from back - front) might cause loss of feeling without full loss of motion
Needs time for bile - lipase - micelle migration - enterocyte uptake
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes


44. glucagon secreted by
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
Gall bladder - pancreatic secretions increase - arrive via ampulla of vater (duct glands); insulin secretion increases (fed state; ductless glands)
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger


45. remaining secondary follicle becomes
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
Stims release of tyrosine - derived horms T3/T4 (increase basal metabolic rate); TSH increases thyroid cell size - number - rate of T3/T4 synth -----> thus - iodine deficiency causes swollen thyroid due to lack of neg feedback onto TSH in anterior pi
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)


46. main point of fat transport...
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle


47. The apical side of the villi...
Faces the lumen
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded


48. What do lipases do
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
Break down TAGs to monoglycerides and free fatty acids
Combined via conjunction of pancreatic duct and common bile duct; common bile duct originates at **cystic duct where gall bladder and liver secretions combine ..cystic duct+common bile duct+pancreatic duct --->into duodenum


49. position of AP...
Below hypothalamus
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males


50. Where is bile produced
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
90-140 mg/dl
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans