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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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1. What is main difference is signal transmission in nicotinic vs muscarinic?
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
***nicotinic is ionotropic; muscarinic is GPCR
On the chyme exiting the stomach and entering duodenum thru the pyloric sphincter
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)

2. Spinal cord horns (thick knobs) point
Ventrally (picture skeletal vertebrae)
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
TAGS--->FFAs; remember that FFAs are broken down for energy in mito matrix by beta - oxidation

3. Important aspect of crypt of Lieberkuhn - secreted intestinal juice
Diarrhea: excess water loss in feces; poor absorption of vitamins - minerals
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
Contains lysozyme - which regulates bacteria within intestine; breaks down peptidoglycans (**bact wall); innate immunity
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border

4. In IBS - What is defective

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5. FLAT PG: FSH
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males
Combined via conjunction of pancreatic duct and common bile duct; common bile duct originates at **cystic duct where gall bladder and liver secretions combine ..cystic duct+common bile duct+pancreatic duct --->into duodenum

6. Anterior eye vs. posterior eye
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
Combined via conjunction of pancreatic duct and common bile duct; common bile duct originates at **cystic duct where gall bladder and liver secretions combine ..cystic duct+common bile duct+pancreatic duct --->into duodenum
Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics

7. motor (efferent) neurons --> VENTRAL
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)

8. examples of different cavities... (compartments for viscera)
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
Urine enters kidneys via artery - to arteriole - capillary bed - glomerulus - Bowman's capsule - proximal tubule - loop of henle (concentrates medulla) - distal tubule - collecting tubule - collecting duct (renal pyramids) - renal calyx - renal pelvi
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts

9. testosterone can be aromatized to...
Estradiol
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans

10. Four tissues
Smooth ER
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Contains lysozyme - which regulates bacteria within intestine; breaks down peptidoglycans (**bact wall); innate immunity
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve

11. What does peroxisome do
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul

12. How is glucose absorbed in sm intest
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
Lower blood pH
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood

13. After meiosis II - Male

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14. Adrenal medulla hormones (TYR- DERIVED)
Sensory (afferent - dorsal) - motor (efferent - ventral)
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach

15. mitosis creates somatic cells
Meiosis creates germ cells
Secondary spermatocyte (stim'd by FSH from Sertoli cells -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->spermatid - which matures further into spermatozoa; released into semeniferous tubule; transported to epididymis
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach

16. What is gastric acid?
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Serous membrane (slick - reducing friction) that forms lining of the coelom --> secretes lubricating fluid

17. Posterior eye
90-140 mg/dl
About 7.2
Collection of cell bodies; cell processes project out from both ends of ganglion; synapses with interneuron in spinal cord on one end and sensory receptor on other
vitreous humor - retina - fovea

18. Interaction of corpus luteum/placenta
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Development of placenta begins with implantation; eventually - by end of first trimester - placenta will replace corpus luteum and its estrogen/progest secretions

19. SYMP neurons originate in= PARA neurons originate in=
Serous membrane (slick - reducing friction) that forms lining of the coelom --> secretes lubricating fluid
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit

20. Embryology
Sorts - modifies - concentrates proteins from the ER
Lysosome
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...
Beta cells

21. Luteal surge
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae

22. Thus - central nervous sys is...
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
Processes: axons - dendrites
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)

23. from the loop of henle...
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
Adrenal gland -- AC: steroids (cortisol - aldosterone); AM: catecholamines (epi - norepi); Islets of langerhans: peptides (insulin/glucagon) ANTAGONISTS: calcitonin (thyroid - peptide lowers Ca in blood); parathyroid hormone - peptide - vitamin D pat
Development of placenta begins with implantation; eventually - by end of first trimester - placenta will replace corpus luteum and its estrogen/progest secretions

24. hypothalamus - AP - ACTH - cortisol release from adrenal cortex
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Nuclear envelope reassembled in daughter cells; cytokinesis occurs; nucleoli reappear (site of rRNA synthesis)
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera

25. Meiosis II: EQUATIONAL DIVISION
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)
Adrenal gland -- AC: steroids (cortisol - aldosterone); AM: catecholamines (epi - norepi); Islets of langerhans: peptides (insulin/glucagon) ANTAGONISTS: calcitonin (thyroid - peptide lowers Ca in blood); parathyroid hormone - peptide - vitamin D pat
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap

26. inhibin secreted by
'Increased absorptive area is useful because digested nutrients (including sugars and amino acids) pass into the villi through diffusion - which is effective only at short distances. In other words - **increased surface area (in contact with the flui
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes

27. What is the function of the loop of Henle
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume
Increases solute conc and osmotic pressure of the ***medulla
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies

28. What is the endothelium?
sucrose (gluc+fruc) - lactose (gluc+galactose) - starch (gluc+gluc)
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies
Inner lining of circulatory system
At the first capillary bed of the nephron called the glomerulus which is encased by ***Bowman's capsule

29. What is the net effect of the loop of Henle
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver
Below hypothalamus
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases

30. oxytocin
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
Posterior pituitary hormone; acts on uterus - mammary glands; causes uterine contractions - milk ejection
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc

31. cholinergic receptors: NICTONIC and MUSCARINIC Nicotinic: neuromuscular effectors (ionotropic) Muscarinic: PARA effectors (GPCRs) Adrenergic: SYMP effectors (GPCRs)
Carbohydrates are highly hydrated: one water mol per carbon mol - fats are anhydrous: contain more reduced carbons per unit mass - altogether fats contain 6X energy per unit mass
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
Synthesizes lipids (including steroids); detoxifies drugs; is continuous with lumen

32. What is an endorphin?
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood
An endogenous morphine

33. PNS review: SAME DAVE
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector
Estrogen: steroid; stims LH in luteal surge; causes growth of female sex organs progesterone: prepares/maintains uterus for pregnancy
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...

34. Stomach has no lacteals
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Below hypothalamus
Sensory (afferent - dorsal) - motor (efferent - ventral)
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)

35. Cell bodies of SYMP postganglionic neurons lie far from effector...
Two perpendicular semicircular canals involved in balance - equilibrium
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility

36. What is the net effect of the distal tubule
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)
Lowers osmolarity of the filtrate (IONS - Water Are Taken Back Up By The Kidney)--->at the end of the distal tubule (the collecting tubule) is where aldosterone acts - along with the JGA

37. Where is bile produced
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane

38. What does peptic refer to in general
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Digestion

39. Meiosis I Metaphase I
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
vitreous humor - retina - fovea
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue

40. What controls release of LH - FSH from anterior pituitary
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
Meiosis creates germ cells
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility

41. Beta - oxidation in liver produces...
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep

42. What does portal vein do
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
Ammonia; must be converted to urea by liver and excreted in urine by kidney

43. What are phagosomes
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer
Direction of differentiation
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies

44. What does lipase attack exactly
Outermost layer of blood vessel
TAGS--->FFAs; remember that FFAs are broken down for energy in mito matrix by beta - oxidation
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)

45. What is a normal blood glucose range
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue
90-140 mg/dl
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors

46. Local vs long - distance mediators
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Urine enters kidneys via artery - to arteriole - capillary bed - glomerulus - Bowman's capsule - proximal tubule - loop of henle (concentrates medulla) - distal tubule - collecting tubule - collecting duct (renal pyramids) - renal calyx - renal pelvi

47. Between meals most fats appear in blood as
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
ER
Outer ear= pinna (auricle)- external auditory canal - eardrum (tympanic membrane) inner ear= malleus - incus - stapes - ...oval window - cochlea - where sound is transduced into neural signal...enters cochlea at scala vestibuli - where pressure chang
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc

48. Some epithelial cells are... others...
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
Travels vas deferens - urethra; mixes with prostate fluids - seminal vesicles - couper's gland - etc
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i
Lysosome

49. Anatomy of the villi
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)

50. glucagon secreted by
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel

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