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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
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1. What is a normal blood glucose range
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
90-140 mg/dl
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans

2. albumin has What affect on blood osmotic pressure
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'
Ammonia; must be converted to urea by liver and excreted in urine by kidney

3. these transport proteins - when concs are high enough...
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)

4. In general - parietal=
The wall of the body or of a body cavity or hollow structure
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste

5. So - following blastocyst implantation (4d) - at approx 2 weeks past fertilization
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
Nuclear envelope reassembled in daughter cells; cytokinesis occurs; nucleoli reappear (site of rRNA synthesis)
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries

6. Important aspect of crypt of Lieberkuhn - secreted intestinal juice
Contains lysozyme - which regulates bacteria within intestine; breaks down peptidoglycans (**bact wall); innate immunity
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul

7. sensory (afferent)/interneurons/motor (efferent)
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
Conjunction of cell body w/axon
Testosterone upon stim by LH

8. What is secreted into filtrate by cells of the proximal tubule?
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics
Conjunction of cell body w/axon
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome

9. lysosome main function and derivation
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi
Estradiol
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)

10. Important of villi (='shaggy hair') More fluid makes contact with the epithelial tissue: thus nutrients in solution have less distance to travel to diffuse into villi.

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11. parathyroid hormone
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
Increases blood Calcium
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord

12. FLAT PG: hGH aka somatotropin
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)

13. Embryology
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
To the organelle w/ lumen: smooth ER; they are resynthesized into TAGs
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)

14. FLAT PG: prolactin
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
Faces the lumen

15. Bile salts and lipase
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan
Work together to emulsify fats: bile works as a detergent to increase SA of the fat; increased SA gives more substrate to lipase for digestion
Formed in kidney (nephron) - sent thru renal pelvis - down ureter to bladder - drained by urethra'
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop

16. Some PNS nerves are found in brain - spinal cord
Synthesizes lipids (including steroids); detoxifies drugs; is continuous with lumen
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
Glucose and ketone bodies (not from glycogen stores)
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes

17. What is feces composed of...
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal

18. what else is located in the inner ear (not directly related to auditory)
Two perpendicular semicircular canals involved in balance - equilibrium
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin

19. What kind of cells make up epithel tiss of stom - then sm intest?
Chylomicrons are much bigger
Carbohydrates are highly hydrated: one water mol per carbon mol - fats are anhydrous: contain more reduced carbons per unit mass - altogether fats contain 6X energy per unit mass
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Testosterone and estradiol

20. What (typically - ie not pre - ovulation) feeds back to decrease LH - FSH production?
Estradiol
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)
Testosterone and estradiol
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages

21. only monosaccharides are absorbed
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
Going up - water - impermeable: salt is actively pumped out - filtrate osmolarity goes down as salt leaves
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
Which is why lactase - maltase - dextrinase - sucrase are on brush border

22. large intestine E. coli aid absorption of...
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
Conjunction of cell body w/axon
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics

23. Posterior pituitary hormones (Small Peptides)
Which is why lactase - maltase - dextrinase - sucrase are on brush border
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)

24. What do lipases do
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
Break down TAGs to monoglycerides and free fatty acids
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit

25. Adrenal cortex hormones (STEROIDS)
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Carry signals to musc OR Gland

26. What do villli do
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein

27. For focal point that is nearby - what will the lens look like
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Collection of cell bodies; cell processes project out from both ends of ganglion; synapses with interneuron in spinal cord on one end and sensory receptor on other
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct

28. calcitonin

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29. FLAT PG: FSH
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...

30. components of interstitial fluid
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries

31. size of chylomicrons (fat + apoproteins) vs lipoproteins ('cholesterol')
Needs time for bile - lipase - micelle migration - enterocyte uptake
Chylomicrons are much bigger
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)

32. What does peroxisome do
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
Sensory (afferent - dorsal) - motor (efferent - ventral)
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons

33. in the dark is rhodopsin active or inactive?
Inactive: rhodopsin is activated by photons; activated rhodopsin hyperpolarizes rod cells - causes photobleaching
Stims release of tyrosine - derived horms T3/T4 (increase basal metabolic rate); TSH increases thyroid cell size - number - rate of T3/T4 synth -----> thus - iodine deficiency causes swollen thyroid due to lack of neg feedback onto TSH in anterior pi
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens

34. Cell determination begins At what stage of development
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)
Peptides

35. What controls release of LH - FSH from anterior pituitary
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
Presence of fat - prot in duodenum causes release of **gastric inhibitory peptide**; result is slower stomach contraction; slower emptying into duod thru pyloric sphincter (slower chyme secretion); more time to properly digest - absorb nutrients
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine

36. from the loop of henle...
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids

37. What is endothelium?
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****
Inner lining of blood vessels

38. golgi body
Sorts - modifies - concentrates proteins from the ER
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases

39. medium for paracrine hormones
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages
Night vision
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies

40. liver and blood glucose...
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop
Ganglion
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
Buildup of macromolecules in lysosome due to deficient lysosome enzymes

41. what happens when glycogen stores are saturated and blood sugar remains high?
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel

42. energy source of neurons
5
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots
Follicular (proliferative)= 8d - Luteal (post - ovulation; corpus luteum secretions)= 13d - Menstruation (shed uterine lining if no implantation)= 5
Glucose and ketone bodies (not from glycogen stores)

43. Human chorionic gonadotropin...
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep

44. Neuronal cell bodies have extensions ie
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
Processes: axons - dendrites
Diarrhea: excess water loss in feces; poor absorption of vitamins - minerals

45. mitosis creates somatic cells
Meiosis creates germ cells
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons
Which is why lactase - maltase - dextrinase - sucrase are on brush border

46. Gastrulation: ectoderm/mesoderm/endoderm
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i
Going up - water - impermeable: salt is actively pumped out - filtrate osmolarity goes down as salt leaves

47. signal transduction occurs by 2 paths
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume
Processes: axons - dendrites
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system
Nitrogen

48. What are phagosomes
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies
Lysosome
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue

49. Tight junctions
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
Combined via conjunction of pancreatic duct and common bile duct; common bile duct originates at **cystic duct where gall bladder and liver secretions combine ..cystic duct+common bile duct+pancreatic duct --->into duodenum
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots

50. 80-90% fat absorbed this way
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid

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