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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
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1. spermatogonia arise from
Epithelial tissue near semniferous tubules
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback
Nitrogen
Processes: axons - dendrites

2. Human chorionic gonadotropin...
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy

3. Energy from fat - prot - gluc
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i

4. After meiosis II...
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes
Size of fist; two kidneys; have cortex (steroid hormones) and medulla (catecholamines) - receives about 20% of cardiac output - blood travels down arteries - up veins -'urine is created by the kidney and emptied into the renal pelvis - which is empti
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest

5. Does bile digest fat?
Maintains hi estrogen levels; body does not recognize luteal surge - ovulation does not occur; hi progesterone can lessen shedding by thickening the uterine lining
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine

6. Local vs long - distance mediators
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
Chylomicrons are much bigger
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes

7. portal vein physiology...

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8. alpha - amylase in the mouth digests what kind of bond
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
Hydrostatic pressure forces some plasma thru *fenestrations of the glomerular endothelium* and into Bowman's capsule; B.C. is continuous with lumen of nephron

9. chylomicron concentration in blood after meal
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
Serous membrane (slick - reducing friction) that forms lining of the coelom --> secretes lubricating fluid
Peak at 1-2hr after meal; chylomicrons themselves have half - life of about 1hr after formation in enterocytes

10. Where do absorbed fats go in the enterocyte
To the organelle w/ lumen: smooth ER; they are resynthesized into TAGs
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine

11. Where does the juxtaglomerular apparatus come into play...renin --->inc angiotensins -->inc aldosterone - ups BP
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal

12. Peritoneal refers to...
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine

13. A contracted iris occurs with what kind of stimulation
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)
Notochord (mesoderm) induces ectoderm to thicken into neural plate --->neural tube --->spinal cord
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct

14. What is a normal blood glucose range
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant
90-140 mg/dl
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)

15. cAMP - cGMP - calmodulin...
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord
***nicotinic is ionotropic; muscarinic is GPCR
Faces the lumen
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)

16. FLAT PG: hGH aka somatotropin
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
Gall bladder - pancreatic secretions increase - arrive via ampulla of vater (duct glands); insulin secretion increases (fed state; ductless glands)
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)

17. in mammals - gastrulation involves formation of the
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy
90-140 mg/dl
Eukaryotes
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****

18. inhibin secreted by
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production

19. Path of urine

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20. lysosome pH
Processes: axons - dendrites
Size of fist; two kidneys; have cortex (steroid hormones) and medulla (catecholamines) - receives about 20% of cardiac output - blood travels down arteries - up veins -'urine is created by the kidney and emptied into the renal pelvis - which is empti
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
5

21. How long are peptides when absorbed at brush border
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver
'Microvilli function as the **primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract**. Because of this vital function - the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compoun
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids

22. in the presence of ADH what happens to movement of water across nephron membr
Many modern drugs are ligands for GPCRs
Night vision
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP

23. hypothalamus - AP - ACTH - cortisol release from adrenal cortex
Inactive: rhodopsin is activated by photons; activated rhodopsin hyperpolarizes rod cells - causes photobleaching
Arrested at primary oocyte; hypothalamus GnRH->FSH released at puberty stims granulosa cell development; granulosa secrete zona pellucida = primary follicle
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose

24. bile + fat forms
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit

25. What are the major carbohydrates
Lower blood pH
sucrose (gluc+fruc) - lactose (gluc+galactose) - starch (gluc+gluc)
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability
Digestion

26. Some PNS nerves are found in brain - spinal cord
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue

27. Spinal cord horns (thick knobs) point
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct
Ventrally (picture skeletal vertebrae)
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane

28. Morula (...totipotent)
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)
Gall bladder - pancreatic secretions increase - arrive via ampulla of vater (duct glands); insulin secretion increases (fed state; ductless glands)
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion

29. Ovum development is halted At what stage until fertilization...
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest

30. Some epithelial cells are... others...
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback
Formed in kidney (nephron) - sent thru renal pelvis - down ureter to bladder - drained by urethra'

31. Between meals most fats appear in blood as
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes

32. At post - two weeks ovulation
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans

33. During meiosis I and II in females - rather than creating four chromosomally- equivalent gametes...
Secondary spermatocyte (stim'd by FSH from Sertoli cells -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->spermatid - which matures further into spermatozoa; released into semeniferous tubule; transported to epididymis
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system

34. motor (efferent) neurons --> VENTRAL
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in

35. testosterone can be aromatized to...
Estradiol
Increases blood Calcium
'Increased absorptive area is useful because digested nutrients (including sugars and amino acids) pass into the villi through diffusion - which is effective only at short distances. In other words - **increased surface area (in contact with the flui
Going up - water - impermeable: salt is actively pumped out - filtrate osmolarity goes down as salt leaves

36. Interaction of corpus luteum/placenta
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system
Development of placenta begins with implantation; eventually - by end of first trimester - placenta will replace corpus luteum and its estrogen/progest secretions
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs

37. only monosaccharides are absorbed
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant
Which is why lactase - maltase - dextrinase - sucrase are on brush border
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)

38. In IBS - What is defective

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39. Glucose is a .... sugar; fructose is a .... sugar
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
An endogenous morphine
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility

40. duodenum must have receptors for fat content - protein because
Excretes waste products: urea - uric acid - ammonia - phosphate - maintains homeostasis: including body fluid volume (water reabsorption) and solute composition (mineral balance - nutrient reabsorption) - controls *plasma* pH: antiport of Na/K and pr
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Presence of fat - prot in duodenum causes release of **gastric inhibitory peptide**; result is slower stomach contraction; slower emptying into duod thru pyloric sphincter (slower chyme secretion); more time to properly digest - absorb nutrients
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate

41. week three: neurulation; mesoderm induces ectoderm; thus - NEURULATION INVOLVES SC Development - at week three
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Notochord (mesoderm) induces ectoderm to thicken into neural plate --->neural tube --->spinal cord
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)

42. pancreas secretes enzymes via
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
Pancreatic duct (made of acinar cells?)

43. Meiosis II: EQUATIONAL DIVISION
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
Faces the lumen
Estrogen: steroid; stims LH in luteal surge; causes growth of female sex organs progesterone: prepares/maintains uterus for pregnancy

44. A pinpoint iris is contracted or uncontracted
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
Lower blood pH
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
Size of fist; two kidneys; have cortex (steroid hormones) and medulla (catecholamines) - receives about 20% of cardiac output - blood travels down arteries - up veins -'urine is created by the kidney and emptied into the renal pelvis - which is empti

45. For focal point that is nearby - what will the lens look like
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
Chylomicrons are much bigger
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle

46. parathyroid hormones
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity

47. Luteal surge
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
TAGS--->FFAs; remember that FFAs are broken down for energy in mito matrix by beta - oxidation
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages

48. The path from blood plasma to urine

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49. Examples of GPCRs in sensory systems/signal transduction: What is the ligand or messenger in each case? ...SIGHT - SMELL - MOOD - FIGHT/FLIGHT etc
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Chyme (by combined activity of exocrine glands)
Direction of differentiation
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...

50. cholinergic receptors: NICTONIC and MUSCARINIC Nicotinic: neuromuscular effectors (ionotropic) Muscarinic: PARA effectors (GPCRs) Adrenergic: SYMP effectors (GPCRs)
Peripheral nervous sys
Fallopian tubes
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors

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