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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

Instructions:

Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
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Match each statement with the correct term.
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This is a study tool. The 3 wrong answers for each question are randomly chosen from answers to other questions. So, you might find at times the answers obvious, but you will see it re-enforces your understanding as you take the test each time.

1. Some epithelial cells are... others...
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i
Synthesizes lipids (including steroids); detoxifies drugs; is continuous with lumen

2. bundles of collecting ducts are called
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries
'Increased absorptive area is useful because digested nutrients (including sugars and amino acids) pass into the villi through diffusion - which is effective only at short distances. In other words - **increased surface area (in contact with the flui
At the first capillary bed of the nephron called the glomerulus which is encased by ***Bowman's capsule

3. FLAT PG: LH
Eukaryotes
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct
Estradiol

4. protein absorption at enterocyte
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS
Lower blood pH
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
Peripheral nervous sys

5. in mammals - gastrulation involves formation of the
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system

6. at lo blood sugar...
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy
The renal corpuscle
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)

7. What happens when rod cell is depolarized
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Night vision
sucrose (gluc+fruc) - lactose (gluc+galactose) - starch (gluc+gluc)
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males

8. During meiosis I and II in females - rather than creating four chromosomally- equivalent gametes...
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)

9. Meiosis I Anaphase I
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom
Moves down thru esophageal sphincter

10. Glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin

11. peroxisome is derived from this
Development of placenta begins with implantation; eventually - by end of first trimester - placenta will replace corpus luteum and its estrogen/progest secretions
ER
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)
Travels vas deferens - urethra; mixes with prostate fluids - seminal vesicles - couper's gland - etc

12. What does peroxisome do
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens

13. Where is bile produced
90-140 mg/dl
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra

14. What surrounds the hydrophilic heads of the new TAGs
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots
Calcitonin (peptide; lowers blood Ca); T3/T4 (tyrosine - derived; increase basal metabolic rate); T4= thyroxine
Eukaryotes
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system

15. In effect LH - FSH stimulate
Increases blood Calcium
Going up - water - impermeable: salt is actively pumped out - filtrate osmolarity goes down as salt leaves
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries
The crypts of Lieberkuhn: sm intestine pH is not right; brush border enzs won't work right

16. Gastrin from G cells stims parietal cells...
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide

17. PNS review: SAME DAVE
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra

18. A pinpoint iris is contracted or uncontracted
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Ammonia; must be converted to urea by liver and excreted in urine by kidney
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)

19. parathyroid hormones
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides

20. How does the body mobilize fat stores
Outer ear= pinna (auricle)- external auditory canal - eardrum (tympanic membrane) inner ear= malleus - incus - stapes - ...oval window - cochlea - where sound is transduced into neural signal...enters cochlea at scala vestibuli - where pressure chang
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs

21. Morula (...totipotent)
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage
Estrogen: steroid; stims LH in luteal surge; causes growth of female sex organs progesterone: prepares/maintains uterus for pregnancy
Digestion
cornea (1.4 refractory index; bends light) - pupil (size of pupil is determined by contraction state of the iris) - aqueous humor

22. zygotic life cycle
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
Work together to emulsify fats: bile works as a detergent to increase SA of the fat; increased SA gives more substrate to lipase for digestion

23. Inside the kidney: ...JGA (w/granular cells sensitive to hydrostatic pressure able to secrete renin - activate aldosterone - increase BP) is adjacent to distal tubule - monitors filtrate pressure
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Ganglion
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)

24. exocrine types
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts

25. Where are these exocrine glands located
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide

26. Sensory neuron cell bodies vs. somatic motor cell bodies
Buildup of macromolecules in lysosome due to deficient lysosome enzymes
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord

27. Peritoneal refers to...
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Injury that does not sever SC (causes deep lesion from back - front) might cause loss of feeling without full loss of motion
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons

28. What does peptic refer to in general
Digestion
Collection of cell bodies; cell processes project out from both ends of ganglion; synapses with interneuron in spinal cord on one end and sensory receptor on other
Direction of differentiation
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue

29. Adrenal cortex hormones (STEROIDS)
Processes: axons - dendrites
The crypts of Lieberkuhn: sm intestine pH is not right; brush border enzs won't work right
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)

30. The bolus (chewing) is digested to what in the stomach
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector
Chyme (by combined activity of exocrine glands)

31. almost all cells can store Some glycogen - but...
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
Needs time for bile - lipase - micelle migration - enterocyte uptake
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production

32. Four tissues
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)

33. extracellular matrix formed mainly of...
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae

34. Kidney physiology...

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35. overall - fatty - prot - rich food in duod causes
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep

36. lysosome main function and derivation
cornea (1.4 refractory index; bends light) - pupil (size of pupil is determined by contraction state of the iris) - aqueous humor
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase

37. How does glycogen compare to starch
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc
It is the animal counterpart of starch; it is more highly- branched - thus releases more glucose monomers upon repeated hydrolysis than starch
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme

38. FLAT PG: ACTH
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest

39. Neuronal cell bodies have extensions ie
Stims release of tyrosine - derived horms T3/T4 (increase basal metabolic rate); TSH increases thyroid cell size - number - rate of T3/T4 synth -----> thus - iodine deficiency causes swollen thyroid due to lack of neg feedback onto TSH in anterior pi
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
Processes: axons - dendrites

40. Aldosterone (sodium uptake - potassium secretion)
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot
Faces the lumen
Ganglion

41. What are the memb - bound enzymes of the brush border?
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Digestion
Inner lining of blood vessels
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases

42. Failure of apoptosis can result in
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane

43. Anatomy of the villi
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries

44. euk cell has two principal sides
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal
Presence of fat - prot in duodenum causes release of **gastric inhibitory peptide**; result is slower stomach contraction; slower emptying into duod thru pyloric sphincter (slower chyme secretion); more time to properly digest - absorb nutrients
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol

45. Embryology
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...

46. What is the path of a sound wave that enters the ear?
Ventrally (picture skeletal vertebrae)
Outer ear= pinna (auricle)- external auditory canal - eardrum (tympanic membrane) inner ear= malleus - incus - stapes - ...oval window - cochlea - where sound is transduced into neural signal...enters cochlea at scala vestibuli - where pressure chang
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)
Below hypothalamus

47. From that point...
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS

48. What is a toxic byproduct of gluconeogenesis from proteins
Ammonia; must be converted to urea by liver and excreted in urine by kidney
5
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity

49. therefore - How does plasma leave capillary at the renal corpuscle

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50. Tight junctions
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback