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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

Instructions:

Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
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Match each statement with the correct term.
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This is a study tool. The 3 wrong answers for each question are randomly chosen from answers to other questions. So, you might find at times the answers obvious, but you will see it re-enforces your understanding as you take the test each time.

1. large intestine E. coli aid absorption of...
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Inactive: rhodopsin is activated by photons; activated rhodopsin hyperpolarizes rod cells - causes photobleaching
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
Ventrally (picture skeletal vertebrae)

2. FLAT PG: FSH
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Testosterone upon stim by LH

3. Where else does ADH act
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Many modern drugs are ligands for GPCRs
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera

4. Where does fertilization occur
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Fallopian tubes
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose

5. trypsin is secreted by
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides

6. Inside the kidney: ...JGA (w/granular cells sensitive to hydrostatic pressure able to secrete renin - activate aldosterone - increase BP) is adjacent to distal tubule - monitors filtrate pressure
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
Epithelial tissue near semniferous tubules

7. golgi body
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
Sorts - modifies - concentrates proteins from the ER
Lowers osmolarity of the filtrate (IONS - Water Are Taken Back Up By The Kidney)--->at the end of the distal tubule (the collecting tubule) is where aldosterone acts - along with the JGA

8. alpha - amylase in the mouth digests what kind of bond
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
Nitrogen

9. ADH
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)

10. spermatogonia arise from
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
Combined via conjunction of pancreatic duct and common bile duct; common bile duct originates at **cystic duct where gall bladder and liver secretions combine ..cystic duct+common bile duct+pancreatic duct --->into duodenum
Epithelial tissue near semniferous tubules

11. mucus cells line the stomach...
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)

12. Where does blood to be filtered by kidney enter the nephron?

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13. in the dark is rhodopsin active or inactive?
Inactive: rhodopsin is activated by photons; activated rhodopsin hyperpolarizes rod cells - causes photobleaching
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
The renal corpuscle

14. motor (efferent) neurons --> VENTRAL
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Needs time for bile - lipase - micelle migration - enterocyte uptake
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector

15. STOMACH: no absorption
Inner lining of blood vessels
Travels vas deferens - urethra; mixes with prostate fluids - seminal vesicles - couper's gland - etc
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane

16. PNS review: SAME DAVE
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector
Organs
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle

17. 3 phases of menstrual cycle
'Increased absorptive area is useful because digested nutrients (including sugars and amino acids) pass into the villi through diffusion - which is effective only at short distances. In other words - **increased surface area (in contact with the flui
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase

18. important pancreatic enzymes
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
Buildup of macromolecules in lysosome due to deficient lysosome enzymes
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane

19. medium for paracrine hormones
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)
Organs
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis

20. SYMP neurons originate in= PARA neurons originate in=
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption

21. How do nutrients move?
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
Below hypothalamus
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei

22. Luteal surge
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste

23. smooth ER main function
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Synthesizes lipids (including steroids); detoxifies drugs; is continuous with lumen

24. E storage per unit mass
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Urine enters kidneys via artery - to arteriole - capillary bed - glomerulus - Bowman's capsule - proximal tubule - loop of henle (concentrates medulla) - distal tubule - collecting tubule - collecting duct (renal pyramids) - renal calyx - renal pelvi
Carbohydrates are highly hydrated: one water mol per carbon mol - fats are anhydrous: contain more reduced carbons per unit mass - altogether fats contain 6X energy per unit mass

25. almost all exocytosed proteins pass through this
Smooth ER
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability

26. Embryology
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
Eukaryotes

27. review: parietals secrete intrinsic factor...
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes
At the first capillary bed of the nephron called the glomerulus which is encased by ***Bowman's capsule
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine
Nuclear envelope reassembled in daughter cells; cytokinesis occurs; nucleoli reappear (site of rRNA synthesis)

28. What if large intestine isn't working well
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
Diarrhea: excess water loss in feces; poor absorption of vitamins - minerals

29. How does glycogen compare to starch
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
It is the animal counterpart of starch; it is more highly- branched - thus releases more glucose monomers upon repeated hydrolysis than starch
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
Peripheral nervous sys

30. Where does the bolus go after mouth chews food
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
To the organelle w/ lumen: smooth ER; they are resynthesized into TAGs
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
Moves down thru esophageal sphincter

31. food in duod stims release of gastrointestinal hormones
Injury that does not sever SC (causes deep lesion from back - front) might cause loss of feeling without full loss of motion
Gall bladder - pancreatic secretions increase - arrive via ampulla of vater (duct glands); insulin secretion increases (fed state; ductless glands)
Maintains hi estrogen levels; body does not recognize luteal surge - ovulation does not occur; hi progesterone can lessen shedding by thickening the uterine lining
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons

32. In effect LH - FSH stimulate
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries

33. What kind of cells make up epithel tiss of stom - then sm intest?
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes
Many modern drugs are ligands for GPCRs
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Testosterone upon stim by LH

34. mitosis creates somatic cells
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i
Diarrhea: excess water loss in feces; poor absorption of vitamins - minerals
Meiosis creates germ cells
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP

35. What do villli do
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue

36. bile + fat forms
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border
'Microvilli function as the **primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract**. Because of this vital function - the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compoun

37. gradual increase in FSH typical of primary follicle development;
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)

38. Glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Urine enters kidneys via artery - to arteriole - capillary bed - glomerulus - Bowman's capsule - proximal tubule - loop of henle (concentrates medulla) - distal tubule - collecting tubule - collecting duct (renal pyramids) - renal calyx - renal pelvi
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS

39. A pinpoint iris is contracted or uncontracted
Mostly reabsorbed to liver
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****

40. What surrounds the hydrophilic heads of the new TAGs
'Increased absorptive area is useful because digested nutrients (including sugars and amino acids) pass into the villi through diffusion - which is effective only at short distances. In other words - **increased surface area (in contact with the flui
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
The wall of the body or of a body cavity or hollow structure
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system

41. Where does the juxtaglomerular apparatus come into play...renin --->inc angiotensins -->inc aldosterone - ups BP
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
Below hypothalamus
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle

42. cholinergic receptors: NICTONIC and MUSCARINIC Nicotinic: neuromuscular effectors (ionotropic) Muscarinic: PARA effectors (GPCRs) Adrenergic: SYMP effectors (GPCRs)
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood

43. What is a normal blood glucose range
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
90-140 mg/dl
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity

44. What does lipase attack exactly
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
Notochord (mesoderm) induces ectoderm to thicken into neural plate --->neural tube --->spinal cord
TAGS--->FFAs; remember that FFAs are broken down for energy in mito matrix by beta - oxidation

45. 80% of end product of carbohydrate metabolism is...
Glucose
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
Increases blood Calcium

46. Where would materials slated for digestion go?
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
Lysosome

47. 80-90% fat absorbed this way
Ventrally (picture skeletal vertebrae)
The wall of the body or of a body cavity or hollow structure
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome

48. How do parietal cells work ** (involves CO2)
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan

49. energy source of neurons
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons
Glucose and ketone bodies (not from glycogen stores)
Form barrier to extracellular fluid

50. What determines number of chromosomes?
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome
Stims release of tyrosine - derived horms T3/T4 (increase basal metabolic rate); TSH increases thyroid cell size - number - rate of T3/T4 synth -----> thus - iodine deficiency causes swollen thyroid due to lack of neg feedback onto TSH in anterior pi
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
Secondary spermatocyte (stim'd by FSH from Sertoli cells -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->spermatid - which matures further into spermatozoa; released into semeniferous tubule; transported to epididymis