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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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1. Blastocyst
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP

2. Interaction of corpus luteum/placenta
Lower blood pH
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
Development of placenta begins with implantation; eventually - by end of first trimester - placenta will replace corpus luteum and its estrogen/progest secretions

3. Where does fertilization occur
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom
Buildup of macromolecules in lysosome due to deficient lysosome enzymes
Fallopian tubes
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle

4. After meiosis II - Female

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5. parathyroid hormone
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability
Eukaryotes
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Increases blood Calcium

6. When 'coumadin targets liver enzymes to act as anticoagulant'...
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
An endogenous morphine
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste

7. What do the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule add up to...
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome
The renal corpuscle
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)

8. Where do pancreatic secretions take effect
An endogenous morphine
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0
On the chyme exiting the stomach and entering duodenum thru the pyloric sphincter
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males

9. What do villli do
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption

10. duodenum must have receptors for fat content - protein because
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
Presence of fat - prot in duodenum causes release of **gastric inhibitory peptide**; result is slower stomach contraction; slower emptying into duod thru pyloric sphincter (slower chyme secretion); more time to properly digest - absorb nutrients

11. gametic life cycle
Secondary spermatocyte (stim'd by FSH from Sertoli cells -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->spermatid - which matures further into spermatozoa; released into semeniferous tubule; transported to epididymis
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes
Night vision

12. little by little chyme is squirted out thru pyloric sphincter
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases

13. cytosol pH
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
About 7.2
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae

14. Determination is different than differentiation
Peptides
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t

15. main point of fat transport...
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera
Night vision
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol

16. Path of food entering body...
Buildup of macromolecules in lysosome due to deficient lysosome enzymes
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer

17. What Changes - Doesn't Change as a result of movement of molecules across membranes in the proximal tubule
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
The crypts of Lieberkuhn: sm intestine pH is not right; brush border enzs won't work right

18. gametes are haploid
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
Sensory (afferent - dorsal) - motor (efferent - ventral)
Zygotes are diploid
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs

19. micelles vs liposomes
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
Meiosis creates germ cells

20. Kidney
Excretes waste products: urea - uric acid - ammonia - phosphate - maintains homeostasis: including body fluid volume (water reabsorption) and solute composition (mineral balance - nutrient reabsorption) - controls *plasma* pH: antiport of Na/K and pr
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom

21. inhibin secreted by
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies

22. PNS is broken down into
Ventrally (picture skeletal vertebrae)
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys
Formed in kidney (nephron) - sent thru renal pelvis - down ureter to bladder - drained by urethra'
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage

23. from thoracic duct - chylomicrons stick to capillary walls...
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons
Processes: axons - dendrites
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes

24. peroxisome is derived from this
At the first capillary bed of the nephron called the glomerulus which is encased by ***Bowman's capsule
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
ER

25. What is the pH at the entrance to the duodenum
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
PH 6.0; this accomplished by pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate which ups pH
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
Focuses light thru the vitreous humor onto retina; acts as a converging lens (image is real - inverted)

26. 80-90% fat absorbed this way
Posterior pituitary hormone; acts on uterus - mammary glands; causes uterine contractions - milk ejection
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)

27. FLAT PG: FSH
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra

28. almost all cells can store Some glycogen - but...
Ganglion
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
Bacterial flagellin: hollow filament (not microtub); euk: 9+2 microtubule w/dynein bridges

29. What does peroxisome do
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins

30. After meiosis II - Male

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31. A pinpoint iris is contracted or uncontracted
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
ER
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms

32. Meiosis II: EQUATIONAL DIVISION
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)

33. Aldosterone (sodium uptake - potassium secretion)
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete

34. Seen in lysosomal storage diseases
Buildup of macromolecules in lysosome due to deficient lysosome enzymes
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...

35. Where is bile produced
Faces the lumen
Testosterone upon stim by LH
To the organelle w/ lumen: smooth ER; they are resynthesized into TAGs
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**

36. golgi body
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera
Two perpendicular semicircular canals involved in balance - equilibrium
Sorts - modifies - concentrates proteins from the ER

37. PNS nerve signal
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
Nuclear envelope reassembled in daughter cells; cytokinesis occurs; nucleoli reappear (site of rRNA synthesis)
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan

38. Sensory - motor neurons are part of which nervous system
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid
To the organelle w/ lumen: smooth ER; they are resynthesized into TAGs
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes
Peripheral nervous sys

39. Examples of GPCRs in sensory systems/signal transduction: What is the ligand or messenger in each case? ...SIGHT - SMELL - MOOD - FIGHT/FLIGHT etc
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Size of fist; two kidneys; have cortex (steroid hormones) and medulla (catecholamines) - receives about 20% of cardiac output - blood travels down arteries - up veins -'urine is created by the kidney and emptied into the renal pelvis - which is empti

40. food in duod stims release of gastrointestinal hormones
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus
Gall bladder - pancreatic secretions increase - arrive via ampulla of vater (duct glands); insulin secretion increases (fed state; ductless glands)

41. Contrast PNS- Somatic with PNS- Autonomic
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)

42. FSH - LH - HCG - inhibin are...
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
Peptides
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border

43. sporic life cycle
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach

44. Leydig cells produce
Injury that does not sever SC (causes deep lesion from back - front) might cause loss of feeling without full loss of motion
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Testosterone upon stim by LH

45. Glucose is a .... sugar; fructose is a .... sugar
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
Chyme (by combined activity of exocrine glands)
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)

46. What force is acting upon chyme to move it forward down sm intestine
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH

47. Embryology
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
Inner lining of blood vessels

48. Meiosis I: REDUCTIONAL DIVISION Interphase: G1 (growth; enzymes - structural proteins needed for gametic production are synthesized); S (DNA of homologous chromosomes is duplicated; mother cell goes from 46 2N to 46 2N with sister chromosomes connect
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
'Microvilli function as the **primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract**. Because of this vital function - the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compoun
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption

49. Where would materials slated for digestion go?
TAGS--->FFAs; remember that FFAs are broken down for energy in mito matrix by beta - oxidation
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Lysosome
Lowers osmolarity of the filtrate (IONS - Water Are Taken Back Up By The Kidney)--->at the end of the distal tubule (the collecting tubule) is where aldosterone acts - along with the JGA

50. light detection via GPCRs
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)
Formed in kidney (nephron) - sent thru renal pelvis - down ureter to bladder - drained by urethra'
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome

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