Instructions:

• Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
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• Match each statement with the correct term.
• Don't refresh. All questions and answers are randomly picked and ordered every time you load a test.

This is a study tool. The 3 wrong answers for each question are randomly chosen from answers to other questions. So, you might find at times the answers obvious, but you will see it re-enforces your understanding as you take the test each time.

1. remaining secondary follicle becomes
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord
Night vision


2. Creating gradients requires what?
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom


3. What is a plasmalogen?
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss
Sorts - modifies - concentrates proteins from the ER
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons


4. Beta - oxidation in liver produces...
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Nitrogen
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases


5. What do the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule add up to...
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
The renal corpuscle


6. What testosterone released by secondary follicle by LH stim is converted to...
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Urine enters kidneys via artery - to arteriole - capillary bed - glomerulus - Bowman's capsule - proximal tubule - loop of henle (concentrates medulla) - distal tubule - collecting tubule - collecting duct (renal pyramids) - renal calyx - renal pelvi
5
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback


7. Where else does ADH act
Chyme (by combined activity of exocrine glands)
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan
Conjunction of cell body w/axon


8. Embryology
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc


9. What is a normal blood glucose range
Mostly reabsorbed to liver
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver
90-140 mg/dl


10. The path from blood plasma to urine

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11. Determination is different than differentiation
Peptides
Testosterone and estradiol
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
Lysosome


12. liver receives blood from...
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom


13. Spinal cord horns (thick knobs) point
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
TAGS--->FFAs; remember that FFAs are broken down for energy in mito matrix by beta - oxidation
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
Ventrally (picture skeletal vertebrae)


14. FSH - LH - HCG - inhibin are...
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
Peptides
Increases blood Calcium


15. Where do pancreatic secretions take effect
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
On the chyme exiting the stomach and entering duodenum thru the pyloric sphincter
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)


16. PNS nerve signal
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan
Pancreatic duct (made of acinar cells?)
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss


17. Path of food entering body...
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus


18. Different organs working together
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)


19. calcitonin

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20. Morula (...totipotent)
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Sorts - modifies - concentrates proteins from the ER
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage


21. Anterior eye
Chyme (by combined activity of exocrine glands)
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
cornea (1.4 refractory index; bends light) - pupil (size of pupil is determined by contraction state of the iris) - aqueous humor
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel


22. Peritoneal refers to...
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)


23. Where does blood to be filtered by kidney enter the nephron?

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24. in the dark is rhodopsin active or inactive?
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Inactive: rhodopsin is activated by photons; activated rhodopsin hyperpolarizes rod cells - causes photobleaching


25. After meiosis II...
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes
Below hypothalamus
***nicotinic is ionotropic; muscarinic is GPCR


26. testosterone can be aromatized to...
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes
5
Estradiol


27. What force is acting upon chyme to move it forward down sm intestine
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste


28. How long are peptides when absorbed at brush border
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
Contains lysozyme - which regulates bacteria within intestine; breaks down peptidoglycans (**bact wall); innate immunity


29. sensory (afferent)/interneurons/motor (efferent)
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Neurons may perform one of three functions....


30. How do parietal cells work ** (involves CO2)
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel


31. important because in meiosis germ - line cells begin as 46 2N w/ 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes which are replicated in S phase of interphase to 23 pairs of sister chromatids = still 46 2N
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'
Collection of cell bodies; cell processes project out from both ends of ganglion; synapses with interneuron in spinal cord on one end and sensory receptor on other
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border


32. in the presence of ADH what happens to movement of water across nephron membr
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
90-140 mg/dl
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue


33. overview of prot digestion
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose
sucrose (gluc+fruc) - lactose (gluc+galactose) - starch (gluc+gluc)


34. mitosis creates somatic cells
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose
Meiosis creates germ cells
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus


35. lysosome main function and derivation
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi
Needs time for bile - lipase - micelle migration - enterocyte uptake
Which is why lactase - maltase - dextrinase - sucrase are on brush border
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries


36. Important of villi (='shaggy hair') More fluid makes contact with the epithelial tissue: thus nutrients in solution have less distance to travel to diffuse into villi.

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37. golgi body
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
Sorts - modifies - concentrates proteins from the ER
Peptides


38. trypsin is secreted by
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides


39. lysosome pH
Epithelial tissue near semniferous tubules
Carbohydrates are highly hydrated: one water mol per carbon mol - fats are anhydrous: contain more reduced carbons per unit mass - altogether fats contain 6X energy per unit mass
5
On the chyme exiting the stomach and entering duodenum thru the pyloric sphincter


40. large intestine E. coli aid absorption of...
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
The wall of the body or of a body cavity or hollow structure
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...


41. What does peptic refer to in general
Digestion
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
Formed in kidney (nephron) - sent thru renal pelvis - down ureter to bladder - drained by urethra'
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms


42. Three stages of the menstrual cycle
Notochord (mesoderm) induces ectoderm to thicken into neural plate --->neural tube --->spinal cord
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
Follicular (proliferative)= 8d - Luteal (post - ovulation; corpus luteum secretions)= 13d - Menstruation (shed uterine lining if no implantation)= 5


43. therefore - How does plasma leave capillary at the renal corpuscle

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44. Sensory neuron cell bodies vs. somatic motor cell bodies
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum
Testosterone and estradiol
Stims release of tyrosine - derived horms T3/T4 (increase basal metabolic rate); TSH increases thyroid cell size - number - rate of T3/T4 synth -----> thus - iodine deficiency causes swollen thyroid due to lack of neg feedback onto TSH in anterior pi


45. ADH
Contains lysozyme - which regulates bacteria within intestine; breaks down peptidoglycans (**bact wall); innate immunity
Synthesizes lipids (including steroids); detoxifies drugs; is continuous with lumen
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume


46. A group of cell bodies in CNS is nucleus - outside CNS is...
Ganglion
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t


47. only monosaccharides are absorbed
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Sensory (afferent - dorsal) - motor (efferent - ventral)
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine
Which is why lactase - maltase - dextrinase - sucrase are on brush border


48. 'Cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are located in....'
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)


49. review: parietals secrete intrinsic factor...
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine


50. lining of abdominal cavity=
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Maintains hi estrogen levels; body does not recognize luteal surge - ovulation does not occur; hi progesterone can lessen shedding by thickening the uterine lining
Serous membrane (slick - reducing friction) that forms lining of the coelom --> secretes lubricating fluid