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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
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1. light detection via GPCRs
Eukaryotes
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)
5
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage

2. fat digestion is time - intensive
Serous membrane (slick - reducing friction) that forms lining of the coelom --> secretes lubricating fluid
Needs time for bile - lipase - micelle migration - enterocyte uptake
Gall bladder - pancreatic secretions increase - arrive via ampulla of vater (duct glands); insulin secretion increases (fed state; ductless glands)
Beta cells

3. cytosol pH
About 7.2
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord

4. What is the mesentery?
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)
Peripheral nervous sys

5. Liver Functions
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit

6. Beta - oxidation in liver produces...
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...
90-140 mg/dl
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries

7. cAMP - cGMP - calmodulin...
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback
Needs time for bile - lipase - micelle migration - enterocyte uptake
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)

8. liver and blood glucose...
5
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
About 7.2

9. when thinking of proteins - think
The wall of the body or of a body cavity or hollow structure
Nitrogen
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve

10. serous membranes have a viscera - facing layer and a body wall - facing layer
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)
Normally contracted
Calcitonin (peptide; lowers blood Ca); T3/T4 (tyrosine - derived; increase basal metabolic rate); T4= thyroxine
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity

11. 'Cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are located in....'
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
Night vision

12. How does water cross the apical membrane
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient

13. insulin secreted by
Beta cells
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
cornea (1.4 refractory index; bends light) - pupil (size of pupil is determined by contraction state of the iris) - aqueous humor
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons

14. Cell determination begins At what stage of development
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on

15. What controls release of LH - FSH from anterior pituitary
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
Peripheral nervous sys

16. Where are these exocrine glands located
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
'Increased absorptive area is useful because digested nutrients (including sugars and amino acids) pass into the villi through diffusion - which is effective only at short distances. In other words - **increased surface area (in contact with the flui

17. what cannot cross the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle
Beta cells
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate

18. In general - parietal=
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons
Processes: axons - dendrites
The wall of the body or of a body cavity or hollow structure
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid

19. Gland: ovaries
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Estrogen: steroid; stims LH in luteal surge; causes growth of female sex organs progesterone: prepares/maintains uterus for pregnancy
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve

20. What is a dorsal root ganglion?
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct
Collection of cell bodies; cell processes project out from both ends of ganglion; synapses with interneuron in spinal cord on one end and sensory receptor on other
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility

21. important pancreatic enzymes
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal

22. pancreatic amylase is much stronger than
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males
Serous membrane (slick - reducing friction) that forms lining of the coelom --> secretes lubricating fluid
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages

23. thyroid hormones: Not All One Kind of HORM
Smooth ER
Calcitonin (peptide; lowers blood Ca); T3/T4 (tyrosine - derived; increase basal metabolic rate); T4= thyroxine
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue

24. What do the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule add up to...
The renal corpuscle
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct

25. 90% digestion - absorption occurs in...
Needs time for bile - lipase - micelle migration - enterocyte uptake
Peptides
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol

26. Leydig cells produce
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
Testosterone upon stim by LH
About 7.2
Glucose and ketone bodies (not from glycogen stores)

27. signal transduction occurs only in
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
Eukaryotes
Inner lining of circulatory system
Nitrogen

28. peroxisome is derived from this
ER
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)

29. zygotic life cycle
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
sucrose (gluc+fruc) - lactose (gluc+galactose) - starch (gluc+gluc)
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct

30. What kind of cells make up epithel tiss of stom - then sm intest?
Follicular (proliferative)= 8d - Luteal (post - ovulation; corpus luteum secretions)= 13d - Menstruation (shed uterine lining if no implantation)= 5
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0

31. SYMP neurons originate in= PARA neurons originate in=
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
Serous membrane (slick - reducing friction) that forms lining of the coelom --> secretes lubricating fluid

32. albumin has What affect on blood osmotic pressure
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)

33. protein absorption at enterocyte
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS

34. After meiosis II - Female

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35. motor (efferent) neurons --> VENTRAL
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
Carry signals to musc OR Gland

36. from thoracic duct - chylomicrons stick to capillary walls...
Mostly reabsorbed to liver
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids

37. What Changes - Doesn't Change as a result of movement of molecules across membranes in the proximal tubule
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids

38. lysosome main function and derivation
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi

39. What are the memb - bound enzymes of the brush border?
Lowers osmolarity of the filtrate (IONS - Water Are Taken Back Up By The Kidney)--->at the end of the distal tubule (the collecting tubule) is where aldosterone acts - along with the JGA
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons
Lysosome

40. What happens when rod cell is depolarized
Night vision
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
Ventrally (picture skeletal vertebrae)
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum

41. Anatomy of the villi
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)

42. Aldosterone (sodium uptake - potassium secretion)
Serous membrane (slick - reducing friction) that forms lining of the coelom --> secretes lubricating fluid
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)

43. Epithelium of the sm intestine: enterocytes lined w/brush border (digestion/absorption); goblet cells (mucous); crypts of Lieberkuhn exocrine glands (lysozyme)
Outer ear= pinna (auricle)- external auditory canal - eardrum (tympanic membrane) inner ear= malleus - incus - stapes - ...oval window - cochlea - where sound is transduced into neural signal...enters cochlea at scala vestibuli - where pressure chang
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots

44. What is the function of the loop of Henle
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
Increases solute conc and osmotic pressure of the ***medulla
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei

45. In effect LH - FSH stimulate
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries

46. 3 phases of menstrual cycle
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)

47. portal vein physiology...

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48. FLAT PG: prolactin
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
Size of fist; two kidneys; have cortex (steroid hormones) and medulla (catecholamines) - receives about 20% of cardiac output - blood travels down arteries - up veins -'urine is created by the kidney and emptied into the renal pelvis - which is empti
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts

49. Between meals most fats appear in blood as
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
Peripheral nervous sys
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord

50. What do lipases do
Synthesizes lipids (including steroids); detoxifies drugs; is continuous with lumen
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
Break down TAGs to monoglycerides and free fatty acids

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