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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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1. Ovum development is halted At what stage until fertilization...
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom
Testosterone and estradiol

2. Different organs working together
Peptides
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
Moves down thru esophageal sphincter

3. gametes are haploid
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)
Zygotes are diploid
Moves down thru esophageal sphincter

4. Different tissues working together
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
Organs
Estrogen: steroid; stims LH in luteal surge; causes growth of female sex organs progesterone: prepares/maintains uterus for pregnancy

5. STOMACH: no absorption
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots

6. Four tissues
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Beta cells
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)

7. Thus - central nervous sys is...
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
Normally contracted
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)

8. Where are these exocrine glands located
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Chyme (by combined activity of exocrine glands)
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice

9. After meiosis I - daughter cells are...

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10. Where else does ADH act
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
sucrose (gluc+fruc) - lactose (gluc+galactose) - starch (gluc+gluc)

11. In effect LH - FSH stimulate
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries
Secondary spermatocyte (stim'd by FSH from Sertoli cells -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->spermatid - which matures further into spermatozoa; released into semeniferous tubule; transported to epididymis
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector

12. What do lipases do
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics
Break down TAGs to monoglycerides and free fatty acids

13. FLAT PG: hGH aka somatotropin
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys
Follicular (proliferative)= 8d - Luteal (post - ovulation; corpus luteum secretions)= 13d - Menstruation (shed uterine lining if no implantation)= 5
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)

14. What is the net effect of the loop of Henle
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)

15. peroxisome is derived from this
Secondary spermatocyte (stim'd by FSH from Sertoli cells -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->spermatid - which matures further into spermatozoa; released into semeniferous tubule; transported to epididymis
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
ER

16. For focal point that is nearby - what will the lens look like
sucrose (gluc+fruc) - lactose (gluc+galactose) - starch (gluc+gluc)
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons

17. what happens when glycogen stores are saturated and blood sugar remains high?
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle

18. Morula (...totipotent)
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)

19. Examples of GPCRs in sensory systems/signal transduction: What is the ligand or messenger in each case? ...SIGHT - SMELL - MOOD - FIGHT/FLIGHT etc
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes

20. How is glucose absorbed in sm intest
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine
Conjunction of cell body w/axon
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in

21. How does duod deal with hi HCl from stom
Epithelial tissue near semniferous tubules
Size of fist; two kidneys; have cortex (steroid hormones) and medulla (catecholamines) - receives about 20% of cardiac output - blood travels down arteries - up veins -'urine is created by the kidney and emptied into the renal pelvis - which is empti
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0

22. trypsin is secreted by
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides
Notochord (mesoderm) induces ectoderm to thicken into neural plate --->neural tube --->spinal cord
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS

23. What are phagosomes
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
Posterior pituitary hormone; acts on uterus - mammary glands; causes uterine contractions - milk ejection
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies

24. remaining secondary follicle becomes
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)
Two perpendicular semicircular canals involved in balance - equilibrium
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine

25. ADH
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability

26. components of interstitial fluid
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'
Faces the lumen

27. Where would materials slated for digestion go?
At the first capillary bed of the nephron called the glomerulus which is encased by ***Bowman's capsule
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
Lysosome
'Increased absorptive area is useful because digested nutrients (including sugars and amino acids) pass into the villi through diffusion - which is effective only at short distances. In other words - **increased surface area (in contact with the flui

28. What is the adventitia?
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
Eukaryotes
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete

29. Path of urine

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30. main point of fat transport...
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice
PH 6.0; this accomplished by pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate which ups pH
Outer ear= pinna (auricle)- external auditory canal - eardrum (tympanic membrane) inner ear= malleus - incus - stapes - ...oval window - cochlea - where sound is transduced into neural signal...enters cochlea at scala vestibuli - where pressure chang

31. Energy from fat - prot - gluc
Direction of differentiation
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms

32. After meiosis II...
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons

33. Some PNS nerves are found in brain - spinal cord
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt
***nicotinic is ionotropic; muscarinic is GPCR
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics

34. examples of different cavities... (compartments for viscera)
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)

35. What testosterone released by secondary follicle by LH stim is converted to...
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue

36. What is the endothelium?
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
Inner lining of circulatory system
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes

37. FLAT PG: FSH
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males

38. Meiosis I: REDUCTIONAL DIVISION Interphase: G1 (growth; enzymes - structural proteins needed for gametic production are synthesized); S (DNA of homologous chromosomes is duplicated; mother cell goes from 46 2N to 46 2N with sister chromosomes connect
Glucose and ketone bodies (not from glycogen stores)
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)

39. Meiosis I Metaphase I
Inner lining of blood vessels
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
Direction of differentiation
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra

40. ligands are the messenger compounds that target secondary messenger systems on effectors
Zygotes are diploid
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
Many modern drugs are ligands for GPCRs
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP

41. Glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis
Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei

42. In general - parietal=
The wall of the body or of a body cavity or hollow structure
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****
Digestion
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons

43. liver and blood glucose...
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
Beta cells
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system

44. What is feces composed of...
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
Testosterone upon stim by LH

45. What is a plasmalogen?
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss

46. cytosol pH
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms
About 7.2
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages

47. Think of spinal cord injury
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy
Nitrogen
Injury that does not sever SC (causes deep lesion from back - front) might cause loss of feeling without full loss of motion
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)

48. What is a nerve? (PNS)
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve

49. Chewing does what?
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)

50. Which fats are not absorbed like this
Beta cells
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids

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MCAT Prep - 2

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