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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
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1. A group of cell bodies in CNS is nucleus - outside CNS is...
Bacterial flagellin: hollow filament (not microtub); euk: 9+2 microtubule w/dynein bridges
Ganglion
Zygotes are diploid
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra

2. Where does the juxtaglomerular apparatus come into play...renin --->inc angiotensins -->inc aldosterone - ups BP
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...

3. alpha - amylase in the mouth digests what kind of bond
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Collection of cell bodies; cell processes project out from both ends of ganglion; synapses with interneuron in spinal cord on one end and sensory receptor on other
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles

4. What controls release of LH - FSH from anterior pituitary
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
Many modern drugs are ligands for GPCRs
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles

5. FSH - LH - HCG - inhibin are...
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys
Peptides

6. 80-90% fat absorbed this way
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)

7. Kidney
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
Going up - water - impermeable: salt is actively pumped out - filtrate osmolarity goes down as salt leaves
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
Excretes waste products: urea - uric acid - ammonia - phosphate - maintains homeostasis: including body fluid volume (water reabsorption) and solute composition (mineral balance - nutrient reabsorption) - controls *plasma* pH: antiport of Na/K and pr

8. physiology of gall bladder - liver and pancreatic secretions
Combined via conjunction of pancreatic duct and common bile duct; common bile duct originates at **cystic duct where gall bladder and liver secretions combine ..cystic duct+common bile duct+pancreatic duct --->into duodenum
Collection of cell bodies; cell processes project out from both ends of ganglion; synapses with interneuron in spinal cord on one end and sensory receptor on other
At the first capillary bed of the nephron called the glomerulus which is encased by ***Bowman's capsule
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase

9. Exocrine GlandS: stomach
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
The renal corpuscle

10. What Changes - Doesn't Change as a result of movement of molecules across membranes in the proximal tubule
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes

11. How does reabsorption force nutrients across apical membrane of proximal tubule
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)
Travels vas deferens - urethra; mixes with prostate fluids - seminal vesicles - couper's gland - etc
cornea (1.4 refractory index; bends light) - pupil (size of pupil is determined by contraction state of the iris) - aqueous humor
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)

12. lysosome pH
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine
5

13. oxytocin
Posterior pituitary hormone; acts on uterus - mammary glands; causes uterine contractions - milk ejection
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins

14. Ovum development is halted At what stage until fertilization...
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
'Microvilli function as the **primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract**. Because of this vital function - the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compoun
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males

15. lysosome main function and derivation
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi
Secondary spermatocyte (stim'd by FSH from Sertoli cells -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->spermatid - which matures further into spermatozoa; released into semeniferous tubule; transported to epididymis
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer
Digestion

16. In effect LH - FSH stimulate
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct

17. What is a plasmalogen?
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss

18. in fat and liver cells monoglycerides and ffas are once again
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose

19. testosterone can be aromatized to...
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Estradiol
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle

20. gametic life cycle
Injury that does not sever SC (causes deep lesion from back - front) might cause loss of feeling without full loss of motion
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes

21. Blastocyst
Fallopian tubes
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant

22. bundles of collecting ducts are called
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra

23. cholinergic receptors: NICTONIC and MUSCARINIC Nicotinic: neuromuscular effectors (ionotropic) Muscarinic: PARA effectors (GPCRs) Adrenergic: SYMP effectors (GPCRs)
Going up - water - impermeable: salt is actively pumped out - filtrate osmolarity goes down as salt leaves
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
Maintains hi estrogen levels; body does not recognize luteal surge - ovulation does not occur; hi progesterone can lessen shedding by thickening the uterine lining
5

24. these transport proteins - when concs are high enough...
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin

25. What is the net effect of the distal tubule
Lowers osmolarity of the filtrate (IONS - Water Are Taken Back Up By The Kidney)--->at the end of the distal tubule (the collecting tubule) is where aldosterone acts - along with the JGA
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
Direction of differentiation
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons

26. Does bile digest fat?
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase

27. quote on cavities/viscera

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28. Where are these exocrine glands located
'Increased absorptive area is useful because digested nutrients (including sugars and amino acids) pass into the villi through diffusion - which is effective only at short distances. In other words - **increased surface area (in contact with the flui
Lowers osmolarity of the filtrate (IONS - Water Are Taken Back Up By The Kidney)--->at the end of the distal tubule (the collecting tubule) is where aldosterone acts - along with the JGA
Normally contracted
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice

29. when thinking of proteins - think
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Hydrostatic pressure forces some plasma thru *fenestrations of the glomerular endothelium* and into Bowman's capsule; B.C. is continuous with lumen of nephron
Sorts - modifies - concentrates proteins from the ER
Nitrogen

30. So - following blastocyst implantation (4d) - at approx 2 weeks past fertilization
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS

31. pancreatic amylase is much stronger than
Direction of differentiation
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0

32. microvilli: increase SA of enterocyte; have hi conc of digestive enzymes

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33. Cell bodies of SYMP postganglionic neurons lie far from effector...
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Break down TAGs to monoglycerides and free fatty acids
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord

34. What is the adventitia?
Night vision
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Epithelial tissue near semniferous tubules
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme

35. What is a nerve? (PNS)
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve

36. What surrounds the hydrophilic heads of the new TAGs
Size of fist; two kidneys; have cortex (steroid hormones) and medulla (catecholamines) - receives about 20% of cardiac output - blood travels down arteries - up veins -'urine is created by the kidney and emptied into the renal pelvis - which is empti
Increases blood Calcium
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose

37. Alpha - amylase found where
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest

38. Where does the bolus go after mouth chews food
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability
Moves down thru esophageal sphincter

39. E storage per unit mass
To the organelle w/ lumen: smooth ER; they are resynthesized into TAGs
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Fallopian tubes
Carbohydrates are highly hydrated: one water mol per carbon mol - fats are anhydrous: contain more reduced carbons per unit mass - altogether fats contain 6X energy per unit mass

40. Luteal surge
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
Meiosis creates germ cells

41. In other words...
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation

42. FLAT PG: prolactin
It is the animal counterpart of starch; it is more highly- branched - thus releases more glucose monomers upon repeated hydrolysis than starch
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme
Sensory (afferent - dorsal) - motor (efferent - ventral)

43. week three: neurulation; mesoderm induces ectoderm; thus - NEURULATION INVOLVES SC Development - at week three
Peak at 1-2hr after meal; chylomicrons themselves have half - life of about 1hr after formation in enterocytes
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics
Notochord (mesoderm) induces ectoderm to thicken into neural plate --->neural tube --->spinal cord
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)

44. gradual increase in FSH typical of primary follicle development;
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis

45. important because in meiosis germ - line cells begin as 46 2N w/ 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes which are replicated in S phase of interphase to 23 pairs of sister chromatids = still 46 2N
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine

46. What is the function of the loop of Henle
Sensory (afferent - dorsal) - motor (efferent - ventral)
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue
Increases solute conc and osmotic pressure of the ***medulla
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine

47. Beta - oxidation in liver produces...
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'

48. What are phagosomes
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies
Urine enters kidneys via artery - to arteriole - capillary bed - glomerulus - Bowman's capsule - proximal tubule - loop of henle (concentrates medulla) - distal tubule - collecting tubule - collecting duct (renal pyramids) - renal calyx - renal pelvi

49. Meiosis I: REDUCTIONAL DIVISION Interphase: G1 (growth; enzymes - structural proteins needed for gametic production are synthesized); S (DNA of homologous chromosomes is duplicated; mother cell goes from 46 2N to 46 2N with sister chromosomes connect
Increases solute conc and osmotic pressure of the ***medulla
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)
Fallopian tubes
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid

50. Think of spinal cord injury
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi
Injury that does not sever SC (causes deep lesion from back - front) might cause loss of feeling without full loss of motion
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons

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