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• Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
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This is a study tool. The 3 wrong answers for each question are randomly chosen from answers to other questions. So, you might find at times the answers obvious, but you will see it re-enforces your understanding as you take the test each time.

1. Adrenal cortex hormones (STEROIDS)
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)


2. How long are peptides when absorbed at brush border
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
Calcitonin (peptide; lowers blood Ca); T3/T4 (tyrosine - derived; increase basal metabolic rate); T4= thyroxine
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)


3. glucagon secreted by
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
Focuses light thru the vitreous humor onto retina; acts as a converging lens (image is real - inverted)
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability


4. ligands are the messenger compounds that target secondary messenger systems on effectors
'Increased absorptive area is useful because digested nutrients (including sugars and amino acids) pass into the villi through diffusion - which is effective only at short distances. In other words - **increased surface area (in contact with the flui
Many modern drugs are ligands for GPCRs
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
PH 6.0; this accomplished by pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate which ups pH


5. mucus cells line the stomach...
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
Lower blood pH
ER


6. During ejaculation - sperm...

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7. How does duod deal with hi HCl from stom
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane


8. Adrenal medulla hormones (TYR- DERIVED)
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles
Direction of differentiation
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
Glucose


9. How does reabsorption force nutrients across apical membrane of proximal tubule
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Ammonia; must be converted to urea by liver and excreted in urine by kidney


10. FSH - LH - HCG - inhibin are...
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Peptides
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS


11. Gastrin from G cells stims parietal cells...
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin


12. extracellular matrix formed mainly of...
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach


13. FLAT PG: prolactin
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
Adrenal gland -- AC: steroids (cortisol - aldosterone); AM: catecholamines (epi - norepi); Islets of langerhans: peptides (insulin/glucagon) ANTAGONISTS: calcitonin (thyroid - peptide lowers Ca in blood); parathyroid hormone - peptide - vitamin D pat
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
Serous membrane (slick - reducing friction) that forms lining of the coelom --> secretes lubricating fluid


14. The path from blood plasma to urine

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15. position of AP...
On the chyme exiting the stomach and entering duodenum thru the pyloric sphincter
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei
Below hypothalamus
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons


16. cytosol pH
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
About 7.2
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons


17. 3 phases of menstrual cycle
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose


18. medium for paracrine hormones
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)
Processes: axons - dendrites
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)


19. What Changes - Doesn't Change as a result of movement of molecules across membranes in the proximal tubule
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum


20. How does water cross the apical membrane
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries
Nuclear envelope reassembled in daughter cells; cytokinesis occurs; nucleoli reappear (site of rRNA synthesis)
ER
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient


21. Both divisions (somatic - autonomic) of PNS consist of...
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages
Sensory (afferent - dorsal) - motor (efferent - ventral)
Organs
Contains lysozyme - which regulates bacteria within intestine; breaks down peptidoglycans (**bact wall); innate immunity


22. almost all cells can store Some glycogen - but...
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava


23. Where are these exocrine glands located
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste
Chylomicrons are much bigger
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice


24. gradual increase in FSH typical of primary follicle development;
Increases solute conc and osmotic pressure of the ***medulla
Hydrostatic pressure forces some plasma thru *fenestrations of the glomerular endothelium* and into Bowman's capsule; B.C. is continuous with lumen of nephron
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)


25. What do villli do
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption


26. is intracellular AA conc hi or low?
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)
Size of fist; two kidneys; have cortex (steroid hormones) and medulla (catecholamines) - receives about 20% of cardiac output - blood travels down arteries - up veins -'urine is created by the kidney and emptied into the renal pelvis - which is empti
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation


27. What is the mesentery?
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger


28. almost all exocytosed proteins pass through this
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice
Smooth ER


29. Examples of GPCRs in sensory systems/signal transduction: What is the ligand or messenger in each case? ...SIGHT - SMELL - MOOD - FIGHT/FLIGHT etc
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
TAGS--->FFAs; remember that FFAs are broken down for energy in mito matrix by beta - oxidation
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts


30. Leydig cells produce
Synthesizes lipids (including steroids); detoxifies drugs; is continuous with lumen
Testosterone upon stim by LH
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector
5


31. During meiosis I and II in females - rather than creating four chromosomally- equivalent gametes...
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies


32. food in duod stims release of gastrointestinal hormones
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)
Gall bladder - pancreatic secretions increase - arrive via ampulla of vater (duct glands); insulin secretion increases (fed state; ductless glands)


33. little by little chyme is squirted out thru pyloric sphincter
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms


34. FLAT PG: LH
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
'Microvilli function as the **primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract**. Because of this vital function - the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compoun


35. keep in mind that enterocyte is like a regular euk cell
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
TAGS--->FFAs; remember that FFAs are broken down for energy in mito matrix by beta - oxidation
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest


36. 80-90% fat absorbed this way
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
Processes: axons - dendrites
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle


37. What is an endorphin?
An endogenous morphine
90-140 mg/dl
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)


38. Path of urine

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39. Anterior eye
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
cornea (1.4 refractory index; bends light) - pupil (size of pupil is determined by contraction state of the iris) - aqueous humor
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis
On the chyme exiting the stomach and entering duodenum thru the pyloric sphincter


40. In IBS - What is defective

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41. In general - parietal=
The wall of the body or of a body cavity or hollow structure
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms


42. cholinergic receptors: NICTONIC and MUSCARINIC Nicotinic: neuromuscular effectors (ionotropic) Muscarinic: PARA effectors (GPCRs) Adrenergic: SYMP effectors (GPCRs)
Excretes waste products: urea - uric acid - ammonia - phosphate - maintains homeostasis: including body fluid volume (water reabsorption) and solute composition (mineral balance - nutrient reabsorption) - controls *plasma* pH: antiport of Na/K and pr
Zygotes are diploid
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
vitreous humor - retina - fovea


43. portal vein physiology...

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44. What is gastric acid?
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
Faces the lumen
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies


45. Where else does ADH act
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine


46. Between meals most fats appear in blood as
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
Neurons may perform one of three functions....


47. examples of different cavities... (compartments for viscera)
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
Estradiol
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum


48. quote on cavities/viscera

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49. What testosterone released by secondary follicle by LH stim is converted to...
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback


50. Glucose is a .... sugar; fructose is a .... sugar
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine
90-140 mg/dl
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
Normally contracted