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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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1. Some PNS nerves are found in brain - spinal cord
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Formed in kidney (nephron) - sent thru renal pelvis - down ureter to bladder - drained by urethra'
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue

2. Thus inhibiting parietal cells could do What to blood pH
Lower blood pH
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies

3. How do monoglycerides and ffas get to brush border?
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme
Direction of differentiation
Night vision
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)

4. quote on cavities/viscera

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5. What is the mesentery?
Collection of cell bodies; cell processes project out from both ends of ganglion; synapses with interneuron in spinal cord on one end and sensory receptor on other
Carbohydrates are highly hydrated: one water mol per carbon mol - fats are anhydrous: contain more reduced carbons per unit mass - altogether fats contain 6X energy per unit mass
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue

6. Glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
Mostly reabsorbed to liver
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane

7. What (typically - ie not pre - ovulation) feeds back to decrease LH - FSH production?
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Testosterone and estradiol
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle

8. FLAT PG: LH
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Maintains hi estrogen levels; body does not recognize luteal surge - ovulation does not occur; hi progesterone can lessen shedding by thickening the uterine lining

9. Where is bile produced
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol

10. Determination is different than differentiation
Chyme (by combined activity of exocrine glands)
Processes: axons - dendrites
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest

11. extracellular matrix formed mainly of...
Development of placenta begins with implantation; eventually - by end of first trimester - placenta will replace corpus luteum and its estrogen/progest secretions
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability

12. liver and blood glucose...
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest

13. Meiosis I Telophase I
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility
Nuclear envelope reassembled in daughter cells; cytokinesis occurs; nucleoli reappear (site of rRNA synthesis)
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus

14. Human chorionic gonadotropin...
Nuclear envelope reassembled in daughter cells; cytokinesis occurs; nucleoli reappear (site of rRNA synthesis)
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy

15. Ovum development is halted At what stage until fertilization...
Peripheral nervous sys
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts

16. bundles of collecting ducts are called
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
Mostly reabsorbed to liver
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest

17. duodenum must have receptors for fat content - protein because
Presence of fat - prot in duodenum causes release of **gastric inhibitory peptide**; result is slower stomach contraction; slower emptying into duod thru pyloric sphincter (slower chyme secretion); more time to properly digest - absorb nutrients
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
Testosterone and estradiol

18. Where are these exocrine glands located
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)

19. Cell determination begins At what stage of development
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage

20. Important aspect of crypt of Lieberkuhn - secreted intestinal juice
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
Formed in kidney (nephron) - sent thru renal pelvis - down ureter to bladder - drained by urethra'
Contains lysozyme - which regulates bacteria within intestine; breaks down peptidoglycans (**bact wall); innate immunity
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS

21. How do nutrients move?
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
Peptides

22. Local vs long - distance mediators
Processes: axons - dendrites
Estradiol
Lower blood pH
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)

23. What does peroxisome do
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle

24. Alpha - amylase found where
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
Which is why lactase - maltase - dextrinase - sucrase are on brush border
Digestion
Travels vas deferens - urethra; mixes with prostate fluids - seminal vesicles - couper's gland - etc

25. FLAT PG: ACTH
Peptides
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts

26. Meiosis I Anaphase I
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
Estradiol
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete

27. Four tissues
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
Arrested at primary oocyte; hypothalamus GnRH->FSH released at puberty stims granulosa cell development; granulosa secrete zona pellucida = primary follicle
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)

28. serous membranes have a viscera - facing layer and a body wall - facing layer
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue

29. How long are peptides when absorbed at brush border
Direction of differentiation
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy

30. almost all exocytosed proteins pass through this
Development of placenta begins with implantation; eventually - by end of first trimester - placenta will replace corpus luteum and its estrogen/progest secretions
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Smooth ER

31. What controls release of LH - FSH from anterior pituitary
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
Nuclear envelope reassembled in daughter cells; cytokinesis occurs; nucleoli reappear (site of rRNA synthesis)
Collection of cell bodies; cell processes project out from both ends of ganglion; synapses with interneuron in spinal cord on one end and sensory receptor on other

32. In IBS - What is defective

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33. Sensory neuron cell bodies vs. somatic motor cell bodies
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord

34. What does peptic refer to in general
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis
Digestion
Maintains hi estrogen levels; body does not recognize luteal surge - ovulation does not occur; hi progesterone can lessen shedding by thickening the uterine lining

35. Glucose is a .... sugar; fructose is a .... sugar
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
Buildup of macromolecules in lysosome due to deficient lysosome enzymes
Development of placenta begins with implantation; eventually - by end of first trimester - placenta will replace corpus luteum and its estrogen/progest secretions
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded

36. Energy from fat - prot - gluc
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms

37. 80-90% fat absorbed this way
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
Estradiol
Adrenal gland -- AC: steroids (cortisol - aldosterone); AM: catecholamines (epi - norepi); Islets of langerhans: peptides (insulin/glucagon) ANTAGONISTS: calcitonin (thyroid - peptide lowers Ca in blood); parathyroid hormone - peptide - vitamin D pat
Fallopian tubes

38. From that point...
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine
Organs
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.

39. lysosome pH
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
5
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol

40. On what surface of the retina is the eye most sensitive
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)

41. What if large intestine isn't working well
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Ventrally (picture skeletal vertebrae)
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins
Diarrhea: excess water loss in feces; poor absorption of vitamins - minerals

42. overall - fatty - prot - rich food in duod causes
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
Posterior pituitary hormone; acts on uterus - mammary glands; causes uterine contractions - milk ejection

43. What is the function of the loop of Henle
Increases solute conc and osmotic pressure of the ***medulla
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
Development of placenta begins with implantation; eventually - by end of first trimester - placenta will replace corpus luteum and its estrogen/progest secretions
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages

44. FSH - LH - HCG - inhibin are...
Peptides
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Meiosis creates germ cells

45. After meiosis II...
Notochord (mesoderm) induces ectoderm to thicken into neural plate --->neural tube --->spinal cord
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine

46. During meiosis I and II in females - rather than creating four chromosomally- equivalent gametes...
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Chylomicrons are much bigger
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans

47. peroxisome is derived from this
ER
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons

48. What hormones affect the stomach?
Inactive: rhodopsin is activated by photons; activated rhodopsin hyperpolarizes rod cells - causes photobleaching
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)

49. glucagon secreted by
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
Chylomicrons are much bigger
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume

50. How is glucose absorbed in sm intest
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
Arrested at primary oocyte; hypothalamus GnRH->FSH released at puberty stims granulosa cell development; granulosa secrete zona pellucida = primary follicle

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MCAT Prep - 2

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