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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
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1. sporic life cycle
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
5
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP

2. What is the pH at the entrance to the duodenum
Presence of fat - prot in duodenum causes release of **gastric inhibitory peptide**; result is slower stomach contraction; slower emptying into duod thru pyloric sphincter (slower chyme secretion); more time to properly digest - absorb nutrients
Inner lining of blood vessels
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord
PH 6.0; this accomplished by pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate which ups pH

3. interneurons
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
Development of placenta begins with implantation; eventually - by end of first trimester - placenta will replace corpus luteum and its estrogen/progest secretions
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons

4. FLAT PG: ACTH
Glucose
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
Pancreatic duct (made of acinar cells?)
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons

5. Leydig cells produce
Testosterone upon stim by LH
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum
The renal corpuscle

6. FLAT PG: TSH aka thyrotropin
Stims release of tyrosine - derived horms T3/T4 (increase basal metabolic rate); TSH increases thyroid cell size - number - rate of T3/T4 synth -----> thus - iodine deficiency causes swollen thyroid due to lack of neg feedback onto TSH in anterior pi
Posterior pituitary hormone; acts on uterus - mammary glands; causes uterine contractions - milk ejection
Sorts - modifies - concentrates proteins from the ER
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...

7. zygotic life cycle
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc

8. What happens when rod cell is depolarized
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Night vision
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit

9. How does water cross the apical membrane
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)

10. What do the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule add up to...
Direction of differentiation
90-140 mg/dl
The renal corpuscle
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity

11. Failure of apoptosis can result in
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Beta cells
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop

12. Polypeptides are formed with what kind of reaction?
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Digestion
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis

13. gametic life cycle
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector

14. Meiosis I Metaphase I
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis

15. little by little chyme is squirted out thru pyloric sphincter
Organs
Testosterone upon stim by LH
Maintains hi estrogen levels; body does not recognize luteal surge - ovulation does not occur; hi progesterone can lessen shedding by thickening the uterine lining
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms

16. sensory (afferent)/interneurons/motor (efferent)
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava

17. Glucose is a .... sugar; fructose is a .... sugar
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'

18. cholinergic receptors: NICTONIC and MUSCARINIC Nicotinic: neuromuscular effectors (ionotropic) Muscarinic: PARA effectors (GPCRs) Adrenergic: SYMP effectors (GPCRs)
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
'Microvilli function as the **primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract**. Because of this vital function - the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compoun

19. cAMP - cGMP - calmodulin...
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Chylomicrons are much bigger
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)

20. What is the adventitia?
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
Maintains hi estrogen levels; body does not recognize luteal surge - ovulation does not occur; hi progesterone can lessen shedding by thickening the uterine lining

21. 80% of end product of carbohydrate metabolism is...
Sorts - modifies - concentrates proteins from the ER
Glucose
PH 6.0; this accomplished by pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate which ups pH
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot

22. calcitonin

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23. Adrenal medulla hormones (TYR- DERIVED)
Increases blood Calcium
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
'Microvilli function as the **primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract**. Because of this vital function - the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compoun
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)

24. medium for paracrine hormones
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids

25. A group of cell bodies in CNS is nucleus - outside CNS is...
Ganglion
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom
Carbohydrates are highly hydrated: one water mol per carbon mol - fats are anhydrous: contain more reduced carbons per unit mass - altogether fats contain 6X energy per unit mass
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)

26. Anatomy of the villi
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system

27. Path of urine

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28. Meiosis I: REDUCTIONAL DIVISION Interphase: G1 (growth; enzymes - structural proteins needed for gametic production are synthesized); S (DNA of homologous chromosomes is duplicated; mother cell goes from 46 2N to 46 2N with sister chromosomes connect
Work together to emulsify fats: bile works as a detergent to increase SA of the fat; increased SA gives more substrate to lipase for digestion
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)

29. what happens to bile secretions
Presence of fat - prot in duodenum causes release of **gastric inhibitory peptide**; result is slower stomach contraction; slower emptying into duod thru pyloric sphincter (slower chyme secretion); more time to properly digest - absorb nutrients
Mostly reabsorbed to liver
Gall bladder - pancreatic secretions increase - arrive via ampulla of vater (duct glands); insulin secretion increases (fed state; ductless glands)
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****

30. what else is located in the inner ear (not directly related to auditory)
Two perpendicular semicircular canals involved in balance - equilibrium
Testosterone and estradiol
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
Needs time for bile - lipase - micelle migration - enterocyte uptake

31. Where does fertilization occur
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
Fallopian tubes
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane

32. Three stages of the menstrual cycle
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Presence of fat - prot in duodenum causes release of **gastric inhibitory peptide**; result is slower stomach contraction; slower emptying into duod thru pyloric sphincter (slower chyme secretion); more time to properly digest - absorb nutrients
Stims release of tyrosine - derived horms T3/T4 (increase basal metabolic rate); TSH increases thyroid cell size - number - rate of T3/T4 synth -----> thus - iodine deficiency causes swollen thyroid due to lack of neg feedback onto TSH in anterior pi
Follicular (proliferative)= 8d - Luteal (post - ovulation; corpus luteum secretions)= 13d - Menstruation (shed uterine lining if no implantation)= 5

33. Mucus - digestive enzymes released thru
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum

34. what happens when glycogen stores are saturated and blood sugar remains high?
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
Maintains hi estrogen levels; body does not recognize luteal surge - ovulation does not occur; hi progesterone can lessen shedding by thickening the uterine lining

35. components of interstitial fluid
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
Digestion
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)

36. Exocrine GlandS: stomach
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme
Estrogen: steroid; stims LH in luteal surge; causes growth of female sex organs progesterone: prepares/maintains uterus for pregnancy
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons

37. almost all cells can store Some glycogen - but...
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts

38. Tight junctions
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Lysosome

39. AP- peptides (FSH - LH - ACTH - TSH - prolactin - hGH); PP- peptides (ADH - oxytocin); thyroid - peptide *and* tyr - derived (T3/T4 - calcitonin); parathyroid - peptide (PTH; raise blood Ca via pathway involving vitamin D)
Organs
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
Adrenal gland -- AC: steroids (cortisol - aldosterone); AM: catecholamines (epi - norepi); Islets of langerhans: peptides (insulin/glucagon) ANTAGONISTS: calcitonin (thyroid - peptide lowers Ca in blood); parathyroid hormone - peptide - vitamin D pat
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands

40. Where else does ADH act
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Peripheral nervous sys
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border

41. FLAT PG: hGH aka somatotropin
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)
Secondary spermatocyte (stim'd by FSH from Sertoli cells -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->spermatid - which matures further into spermatozoa; released into semeniferous tubule; transported to epididymis
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'

42. Determination is different than differentiation
Travels vas deferens - urethra; mixes with prostate fluids - seminal vesicles - couper's gland - etc
***nicotinic is ionotropic; muscarinic is GPCR
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate

43. Gastrulation: ectoderm/mesoderm/endoderm
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies

44. is intracellular AA conc hi or low?
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation
Estradiol
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)

45. review: parietals secrete intrinsic factor...
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine
Urine enters kidneys via artery - to arteriole - capillary bed - glomerulus - Bowman's capsule - proximal tubule - loop of henle (concentrates medulla) - distal tubule - collecting tubule - collecting duct (renal pyramids) - renal calyx - renal pelvi

46. lining of abdominal cavity=
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose
Serous membrane (slick - reducing friction) that forms lining of the coelom --> secretes lubricating fluid
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys

47. What does lipase attack exactly
Peak at 1-2hr after meal; chylomicrons themselves have half - life of about 1hr after formation in enterocytes
Direction of differentiation
TAGS--->FFAs; remember that FFAs are broken down for energy in mito matrix by beta - oxidation
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste

48. Four tissues
Glucose and ketone bodies (not from glycogen stores)
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)

49. light detection via GPCRs
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)

50. going down the loop of Henle - water - permeable - filtrate osmolarity goes up as water leaves...
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
The renal corpuscle
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Going up - water - impermeable: salt is actively pumped out - filtrate osmolarity goes down as salt leaves

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