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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
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1. How does the body mobilize fat stores
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure

2. calcitonin

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3. Kidney
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
Ventrally (picture skeletal vertebrae)
Excretes waste products: urea - uric acid - ammonia - phosphate - maintains homeostasis: including body fluid volume (water reabsorption) and solute composition (mineral balance - nutrient reabsorption) - controls *plasma* pH: antiport of Na/K and pr
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum

4. fat digestion is time - intensive
Smooth ER
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Needs time for bile - lipase - micelle migration - enterocyte uptake
Work together to emulsify fats: bile works as a detergent to increase SA of the fat; increased SA gives more substrate to lipase for digestion

5. What is the adventitia?
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms
Outermost layer of blood vessel
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases

6. Some PNS nerves are found in brain - spinal cord
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border

7. important because in meiosis germ - line cells begin as 46 2N w/ 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes which are replicated in S phase of interphase to 23 pairs of sister chromatids = still 46 2N
The wall of the body or of a body cavity or hollow structure
Gall bladder - pancreatic secretions increase - arrive via ampulla of vater (duct glands); insulin secretion increases (fed state; ductless glands)
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons

8. The bolus (chewing) is digested to what in the stomach
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
Chyme (by combined activity of exocrine glands)
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid
'Microvilli function as the **primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract**. Because of this vital function - the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compoun

9. going down the loop of Henle - water - permeable - filtrate osmolarity goes up as water leaves...
Normally contracted
Estradiol
Going up - water - impermeable: salt is actively pumped out - filtrate osmolarity goes down as salt leaves
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males

10. light detection via GPCRs
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
90-140 mg/dl
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)

11. almost all cells can store Some glycogen - but...
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts

12. mucus cells line the stomach...
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
Sensory (afferent - dorsal) - motor (efferent - ventral)
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****

13. FLAT PG: ACTH
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
Peripheral nervous sys
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice

14. protein absorption at enterocyte
Bacterial flagellin: hollow filament (not microtub); euk: 9+2 microtubule w/dynein bridges
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient

15. signal transduction occurs only in
Processes: axons - dendrites
Beta cells
Eukaryotes
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel

16. duodenum must have receptors for fat content - protein because
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
5
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
Presence of fat - prot in duodenum causes release of **gastric inhibitory peptide**; result is slower stomach contraction; slower emptying into duod thru pyloric sphincter (slower chyme secretion); more time to properly digest - absorb nutrients

17. How is the follicle developed during oogenesis
Arrested at primary oocyte; hypothalamus GnRH->FSH released at puberty stims granulosa cell development; granulosa secrete zona pellucida = primary follicle
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop

18. these transport proteins - when concs are high enough...
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms
PH 6.0; this accomplished by pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate which ups pH
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots

19. Embryology
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit

20. The apical side of the villi...
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Faces the lumen
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel

21. When 'coumadin targets liver enzymes to act as anticoagulant'...
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc

22. signal transduction occurs by 2 paths
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Nuclear envelope reassembled in daughter cells; cytokinesis occurs; nucleoli reappear (site of rRNA synthesis)
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded

23. FLAT PG: LH
The renal corpuscle
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct

24. Fructose relates how structurally to glucose
Work together to emulsify fats: bile works as a detergent to increase SA of the fat; increased SA gives more substrate to lipase for digestion
Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord

25. What do villli do
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons
Inactive: rhodopsin is activated by photons; activated rhodopsin hyperpolarizes rod cells - causes photobleaching
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme

26. Liver Functions
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
Moves down thru esophageal sphincter
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system

27. FLAT PG: FSH
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)

28. Which fats are not absorbed like this
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries
Peptides
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin

29. Sensory neuron cell bodies vs. somatic motor cell bodies
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Inner lining of blood vessels

30. How does blood sugar move into tissues?
Formed in kidney (nephron) - sent thru renal pelvis - down ureter to bladder - drained by urethra'
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes

31. Cell bodies of SYMP postganglionic neurons lie far from effector...
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord

32. At post - two weeks ovulation
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'
Nuclear envelope reassembled in daughter cells; cytokinesis occurs; nucleoli reappear (site of rRNA synthesis)

33. review: parietals secrete intrinsic factor...
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine

34. zygotic life cycle
Injury that does not sever SC (causes deep lesion from back - front) might cause loss of feeling without full loss of motion
Outer ear= pinna (auricle)- external auditory canal - eardrum (tympanic membrane) inner ear= malleus - incus - stapes - ...oval window - cochlea - where sound is transduced into neural signal...enters cochlea at scala vestibuli - where pressure chang
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin

35. Exocrine GlandS: stomach
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep

36. Where does the juxtaglomerular apparatus come into play...renin --->inc angiotensins -->inc aldosterone - ups BP
Testosterone upon stim by LH
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border

37. motor (efferent) neurons --> VENTRAL
Nitrogen
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
Carry signals to musc OR Gland

38. Four tissues
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Size of fist; two kidneys; have cortex (steroid hormones) and medulla (catecholamines) - receives about 20% of cardiac output - blood travels down arteries - up veins -'urine is created by the kidney and emptied into the renal pelvis - which is empti
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries

39. What is a normal blood glucose range
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
90-140 mg/dl
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)

40. when thinking of proteins - think
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum
Nitrogen
Lowers osmolarity of the filtrate (IONS - Water Are Taken Back Up By The Kidney)--->at the end of the distal tubule (the collecting tubule) is where aldosterone acts - along with the JGA
Lower blood pH

41. Where are these exocrine glands located
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
***nicotinic is ionotropic; muscarinic is GPCR
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice

42. What controls release of LH - FSH from anterior pituitary
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
Inner lining of circulatory system

43. What else do parietals do?
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage

44. important pancreatic enzymes
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase

45. What is the function of the loop of Henle
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys
Conjunction of cell body w/axon
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi
Increases solute conc and osmotic pressure of the ***medulla

46. Different tissues working together
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****
Organs
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons

47. What is the mesentery?
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue
Testosterone upon stim by LH

48. lining of abdominal cavity=
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
It is the animal counterpart of starch; it is more highly- branched - thus releases more glucose monomers upon repeated hydrolysis than starch
Serous membrane (slick - reducing friction) that forms lining of the coelom --> secretes lubricating fluid

49. How does reabsorption force nutrients across apical membrane of proximal tubule
Testosterone upon stim by LH
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol

50. How do nutrients move?
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
Faces the lumen
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin

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