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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
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1. mitosis creates somatic cells
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
Meiosis creates germ cells
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
Travels vas deferens - urethra; mixes with prostate fluids - seminal vesicles - couper's gland - etc

2. Stomach has no lacteals
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Mostly reabsorbed to liver
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP

3. what else is located in the inner ear (not directly related to auditory)
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)
Contains lysozyme - which regulates bacteria within intestine; breaks down peptidoglycans (**bact wall); innate immunity
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
Two perpendicular semicircular canals involved in balance - equilibrium

4. Three stages of the menstrual cycle
The renal corpuscle
Follicular (proliferative)= 8d - Luteal (post - ovulation; corpus luteum secretions)= 13d - Menstruation (shed uterine lining if no implantation)= 5
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi
It is the animal counterpart of starch; it is more highly- branched - thus releases more glucose monomers upon repeated hydrolysis than starch

5. What happens when rod cell is depolarized
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome
Posterior pituitary hormone; acts on uterus - mammary glands; causes uterine contractions - milk ejection
Night vision
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies

6. Kidney
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes
Excretes waste products: urea - uric acid - ammonia - phosphate - maintains homeostasis: including body fluid volume (water reabsorption) and solute composition (mineral balance - nutrient reabsorption) - controls *plasma* pH: antiport of Na/K and pr
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms

7. Glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis
Digestion
Hydrostatic pressure forces some plasma thru *fenestrations of the glomerular endothelium* and into Bowman's capsule; B.C. is continuous with lumen of nephron
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc

8. Which fats are not absorbed like this
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries

9. What is feces composed of...
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver

10. The apical side of the villi...
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Bacterial flagellin: hollow filament (not microtub); euk: 9+2 microtubule w/dynein bridges
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)
Faces the lumen

11. Anatomy of the villi
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH

12. What do lipases do
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Break down TAGs to monoglycerides and free fatty acids
Peripheral nervous sys

13. ADH
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons

14. when thinking of proteins - think
Nitrogen
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)
Urine enters kidneys via artery - to arteriole - capillary bed - glomerulus - Bowman's capsule - proximal tubule - loop of henle (concentrates medulla) - distal tubule - collecting tubule - collecting duct (renal pyramids) - renal calyx - renal pelvi
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin

15. What force is acting upon chyme to move it forward down sm intestine
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Maintains hi estrogen levels; body does not recognize luteal surge - ovulation does not occur; hi progesterone can lessen shedding by thickening the uterine lining

16. interneurons
Increases solute conc and osmotic pressure of the ***medulla
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state

17. PNS nerve signal
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan

18. Important of villi (='shaggy hair') More fluid makes contact with the epithelial tissue: thus nutrients in solution have less distance to travel to diffuse into villi.

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19. Inside the kidney: ...JGA (w/granular cells sensitive to hydrostatic pressure able to secrete renin - activate aldosterone - increase BP) is adjacent to distal tubule - monitors filtrate pressure
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases

20. Some epithelial cells are... others...
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i

21. How do monoglycerides and ffas get to brush border?
Estradiol
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
To the organelle w/ lumen: smooth ER; they are resynthesized into TAGs
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme

22. zygotic life cycle
Moves down thru esophageal sphincter
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
Notochord (mesoderm) induces ectoderm to thicken into neural plate --->neural tube --->spinal cord

23. How do parietal cells work ** (involves CO2)
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
Testosterone upon stim by LH

24. mucus cells line the stomach...
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
Stims release of tyrosine - derived horms T3/T4 (increase basal metabolic rate); TSH increases thyroid cell size - number - rate of T3/T4 synth -----> thus - iodine deficiency causes swollen thyroid due to lack of neg feedback onto TSH in anterior pi

25. Thus - central nervous sys is...
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis

26. What is the pH at the entrance to the duodenum
PH 6.0; this accomplished by pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate which ups pH
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum

27. Where are these exocrine glands located
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice

28. extracellular matrix formed mainly of...
Ventrally (picture skeletal vertebrae)
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)

29. Blastocyst
It is the animal counterpart of starch; it is more highly- branched - thus releases more glucose monomers upon repeated hydrolysis than starch
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
Secondary spermatocyte (stim'd by FSH from Sertoli cells -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->spermatid - which matures further into spermatozoa; released into semeniferous tubule; transported to epididymis

30. lysosome main function and derivation
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)

31. examples of different cavities... (compartments for viscera)
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)

32. AP- peptides (FSH - LH - ACTH - TSH - prolactin - hGH); PP- peptides (ADH - oxytocin); thyroid - peptide *and* tyr - derived (T3/T4 - calcitonin); parathyroid - peptide (PTH; raise blood Ca via pathway involving vitamin D)
Adrenal gland -- AC: steroids (cortisol - aldosterone); AM: catecholamines (epi - norepi); Islets of langerhans: peptides (insulin/glucagon) ANTAGONISTS: calcitonin (thyroid - peptide lowers Ca in blood); parathyroid hormone - peptide - vitamin D pat
5
vitreous humor - retina - fovea
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system

33. components of interstitial fluid
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
Contains lysozyme - which regulates bacteria within intestine; breaks down peptidoglycans (**bact wall); innate immunity
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide

34. Path of food entering body...
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
Zygotes are diploid
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc

35. parathyroid hormone
Increases blood Calcium
Work together to emulsify fats: bile works as a detergent to increase SA of the fat; increased SA gives more substrate to lipase for digestion
Glucose
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc

36. Thus inhibiting parietal cells could do What to blood pH
Lower blood pH
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Pancreatic duct (made of acinar cells?)

37. Determination is different than differentiation
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct

38. Meiosis I: REDUCTIONAL DIVISION Interphase: G1 (growth; enzymes - structural proteins needed for gametic production are synthesized); S (DNA of homologous chromosomes is duplicated; mother cell goes from 46 2N to 46 2N with sister chromosomes connect
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)
Peptides
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver

39. oxytocin
Estradiol
Excretes waste products: urea - uric acid - ammonia - phosphate - maintains homeostasis: including body fluid volume (water reabsorption) and solute composition (mineral balance - nutrient reabsorption) - controls *plasma* pH: antiport of Na/K and pr
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Posterior pituitary hormone; acts on uterus - mammary glands; causes uterine contractions - milk ejection

40. Neuronal cell bodies have extensions ie
Processes: axons - dendrites
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
Bacterial flagellin: hollow filament (not microtub); euk: 9+2 microtubule w/dynein bridges

41. Induction affects...
Direction of differentiation
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)
ER
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer

42. A contracted iris occurs with what kind of stimulation
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol
Testosterone and estradiol

43. How long are peptides when absorbed at brush border
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids

44. In IBS - What is defective

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45. inhibin secreted by
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system

46. in the presence of ADH what happens to movement of water across nephron membr
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
On the chyme exiting the stomach and entering duodenum thru the pyloric sphincter
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP

47. Does bile digest fat?
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase

48. Kidney physiology...

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49. Where does the juxtaglomerular apparatus come into play...renin --->inc angiotensins -->inc aldosterone - ups BP
90-140 mg/dl
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs

50. Embryology
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics

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MCAT Prep - 2

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