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This is a study tool. The 3 wrong answers for each question are randomly chosen from answers to other questions. So, you might find at times the answers obvious, but you will see it re-enforces your understanding as you take the test each time.

1. quote on cavities/viscera

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2. cholinergic receptors: NICTONIC and MUSCARINIC Nicotinic: neuromuscular effectors (ionotropic) Muscarinic: PARA effectors (GPCRs) Adrenergic: SYMP effectors (GPCRs)
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors


3. How is the follicle developed during oogenesis
5
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages
Arrested at primary oocyte; hypothalamus GnRH->FSH released at puberty stims granulosa cell development; granulosa secrete zona pellucida = primary follicle
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes


4. what happens when glycogen stores are saturated and blood sugar remains high?
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Outer ear= pinna (auricle)- external auditory canal - eardrum (tympanic membrane) inner ear= malleus - incus - stapes - ...oval window - cochlea - where sound is transduced into neural signal...enters cochlea at scala vestibuli - where pressure chang


5. Local vs long - distance mediators
Fallopian tubes
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)


6. Aldosterone (sodium uptake - potassium secretion)
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste
The crypts of Lieberkuhn: sm intestine pH is not right; brush border enzs won't work right


7. portal vein physiology...

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8. Posterior eye
Chyme (by combined activity of exocrine glands)
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
vitreous humor - retina - fovea
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage


9. mitosis creates somatic cells
Needs time for bile - lipase - micelle migration - enterocyte uptake
Meiosis creates germ cells
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)


10. Gastrin from G cells stims parietal cells...
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles


11. Epithelium of the sm intestine: enterocytes lined w/brush border (digestion/absorption); goblet cells (mucous); crypts of Lieberkuhn exocrine glands (lysozyme)
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Mostly reabsorbed to liver


12. Beta - oxidation in liver produces...
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****
Chyme (by combined activity of exocrine glands)
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
Lysosome


13. components of interstitial fluid
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt


14. important pancreatic enzymes
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Maintains hi estrogen levels; body does not recognize luteal surge - ovulation does not occur; hi progesterone can lessen shedding by thickening the uterine lining
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach


15. From that point...
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant
Follicular (proliferative)= 8d - Luteal (post - ovulation; corpus luteum secretions)= 13d - Menstruation (shed uterine lining if no implantation)= 5


16. 3 phases of menstrual cycle
Increases solute conc and osmotic pressure of the ***medulla
Lowers osmolarity of the filtrate (IONS - Water Are Taken Back Up By The Kidney)--->at the end of the distal tubule (the collecting tubule) is where aldosterone acts - along with the JGA
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)


17. Adrenal cortex hormones (STEROIDS)
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)


18. Creating gradients requires what?
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood
sucrose (gluc+fruc) - lactose (gluc+galactose) - starch (gluc+gluc)
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
Normally contracted


19. Important of villi (='shaggy hair') More fluid makes contact with the epithelial tissue: thus nutrients in solution have less distance to travel to diffuse into villi.

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20. thyroid hormones: Not All One Kind of HORM
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Calcitonin (peptide; lowers blood Ca); T3/T4 (tyrosine - derived; increase basal metabolic rate); T4= thyroxine


21. Meiosis I Anaphase I
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
Carbohydrates are highly hydrated: one water mol per carbon mol - fats are anhydrous: contain more reduced carbons per unit mass - altogether fats contain 6X energy per unit mass
The wall of the body or of a body cavity or hollow structure


22. Induction affects...
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
Direction of differentiation
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)


23. Both divisions (somatic - autonomic) of PNS consist of...
Two perpendicular semicircular canals involved in balance - equilibrium
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms
Sensory (afferent - dorsal) - motor (efferent - ventral)


24. Where do pancreatic secretions take effect
Organs
On the chyme exiting the stomach and entering duodenum thru the pyloric sphincter
Faces the lumen
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine


25. What is the pH at the entrance to the duodenum
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
PH 6.0; this accomplished by pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate which ups pH
Going up - water - impermeable: salt is actively pumped out - filtrate osmolarity goes down as salt leaves
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume


26. small intestine=
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
'Increased absorptive area is useful because digested nutrients (including sugars and amino acids) pass into the villi through diffusion - which is effective only at short distances. In other words - **increased surface area (in contact with the flui


27. How is glucose absorbed in sm intest
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
Follicular (proliferative)= 8d - Luteal (post - ovulation; corpus luteum secretions)= 13d - Menstruation (shed uterine lining if no implantation)= 5
cornea (1.4 refractory index; bends light) - pupil (size of pupil is determined by contraction state of the iris) - aqueous humor
Glucose and ketone bodies (not from glycogen stores)


28. Cell determination begins At what stage of development
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach


29. Path of food entering body...
Normally contracted
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus


30. What determines number of chromosomes?
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
Adrenal gland -- AC: steroids (cortisol - aldosterone); AM: catecholamines (epi - norepi); Islets of langerhans: peptides (insulin/glucagon) ANTAGONISTS: calcitonin (thyroid - peptide lowers Ca in blood); parathyroid hormone - peptide - vitamin D pat


31. In IBS - What is defective

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32. spermatogonia arise from
Epithelial tissue near semniferous tubules
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct


33. sporic life cycle
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)


34. What is a normal blood glucose range
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
Inner lining of blood vessels
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
90-140 mg/dl


35. microvilli: increase SA of enterocyte; have hi conc of digestive enzymes

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36. mucus cells line the stomach...
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Inner lining of circulatory system


37. little by little chyme is squirted out thru pyloric sphincter
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)
Lowers osmolarity of the filtrate (IONS - Water Are Taken Back Up By The Kidney)--->at the end of the distal tubule (the collecting tubule) is where aldosterone acts - along with the JGA
Work together to emulsify fats: bile works as a detergent to increase SA of the fat; increased SA gives more substrate to lipase for digestion
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms


38. micelles also pick up
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane
Below hypothalamus
Bacterial flagellin: hollow filament (not microtub); euk: 9+2 microtubule w/dynein bridges
Glucose


39. What if large intestine isn't working well
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Conjunction of cell body w/axon
Follicular (proliferative)= 8d - Luteal (post - ovulation; corpus luteum secretions)= 13d - Menstruation (shed uterine lining if no implantation)= 5
Diarrhea: excess water loss in feces; poor absorption of vitamins - minerals


40. On what surface of the retina is the eye most sensitive
Peptides
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases


41. main point of fat transport...
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Inner lining of circulatory system
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum


42. What is a nerve? (PNS)
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids


43. So - following blastocyst implantation (4d) - at approx 2 weeks past fertilization
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0
Ammonia; must be converted to urea by liver and excreted in urine by kidney
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens


44. glucagon secreted by
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
Adrenal gland -- AC: steroids (cortisol - aldosterone); AM: catecholamines (epi - norepi); Islets of langerhans: peptides (insulin/glucagon) ANTAGONISTS: calcitonin (thyroid - peptide lowers Ca in blood); parathyroid hormone - peptide - vitamin D pat


45. parathyroid hormones
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on


46. liver receives blood from...
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Synthesizes lipids (including steroids); detoxifies drugs; is continuous with lumen


47. What (typically - ie not pre - ovulation) feeds back to decrease LH - FSH production?
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
Testosterone and estradiol
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)
Peptides


48. How does glycogen compare to starch
ER
It is the animal counterpart of starch; it is more highly- branched - thus releases more glucose monomers upon repeated hydrolysis than starch
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**


49. Seen in lysosomal storage diseases
Buildup of macromolecules in lysosome due to deficient lysosome enzymes
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage


50. After meiosis II - Female

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