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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

Instructions:

Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
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Match each statement with the correct term.
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This is a study tool. The 3 wrong answers for each question are randomly chosen from answers to other questions. So, you might find at times the answers obvious, but you will see it re-enforces your understanding as you take the test each time.

1. Important aspect of crypt of Lieberkuhn - secreted intestinal juice
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss
Contains lysozyme - which regulates bacteria within intestine; breaks down peptidoglycans (**bact wall); innate immunity
Estradiol

2. What is main difference is signal transmission in nicotinic vs muscarinic?
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine
Going up - water - impermeable: salt is actively pumped out - filtrate osmolarity goes down as salt leaves
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides
***nicotinic is ionotropic; muscarinic is GPCR

3. micelles vs liposomes
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep

4. Does bile digest fat?
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
It is the animal counterpart of starch; it is more highly- branched - thus releases more glucose monomers upon repeated hydrolysis than starch

5. 80% of end product of carbohydrate metabolism is...
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides
Glucose
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
Fovea (highest amount of cones)

6. sensory (afferent) neurons
At the first capillary bed of the nephron called the glomerulus which is encased by ***Bowman's capsule
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i

7. testosterone can be aromatized to...
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
Estradiol
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH

8. is intracellular AA conc hi or low?
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation

9. Glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei
Epithelial tissue near semniferous tubules
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons

10. parathyroid hormone
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
Increases blood Calcium
Outer ear= pinna (auricle)- external auditory canal - eardrum (tympanic membrane) inner ear= malleus - incus - stapes - ...oval window - cochlea - where sound is transduced into neural signal...enters cochlea at scala vestibuli - where pressure chang
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border

11. what happens when glycogen stores are saturated and blood sugar remains high?
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Contains lysozyme - which regulates bacteria within intestine; breaks down peptidoglycans (**bact wall); innate immunity
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava

12. fructose enters enterocyte by
Combined via conjunction of pancreatic duct and common bile duct; common bile duct originates at **cystic duct where gall bladder and liver secretions combine ..cystic duct+common bile duct+pancreatic duct --->into duodenum
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport

13. energy source of neurons
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Glucose and ketone bodies (not from glycogen stores)
Break down TAGs to monoglycerides and free fatty acids

14. What is the net effect of the loop of Henle
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
vitreous humor - retina - fovea
Two perpendicular semicircular canals involved in balance - equilibrium

15. Seen in lysosomal storage diseases
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
Buildup of macromolecules in lysosome due to deficient lysosome enzymes
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation
TAGS--->FFAs; remember that FFAs are broken down for energy in mito matrix by beta - oxidation

16. Interaction of corpus luteum/placenta
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Development of placenta begins with implantation; eventually - by end of first trimester - placenta will replace corpus luteum and its estrogen/progest secretions
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors

17. What testosterone released by secondary follicle by LH stim is converted to...
Peptides
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i

18. microvilli: increase SA of enterocyte; have hi conc of digestive enzymes

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19. What (typically - ie not pre - ovulation) feeds back to decrease LH - FSH production?
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Testosterone and estradiol
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul

20. liver and blood glucose...
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
'Microvilli function as the **primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract**. Because of this vital function - the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compoun

21. Creating gradients requires what?
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine
Testosterone and estradiol
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood

22. Where does the juxtaglomerular apparatus come into play...renin --->inc angiotensins -->inc aldosterone - ups BP
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Chylomicrons are much bigger
Arrested at primary oocyte; hypothalamus GnRH->FSH released at puberty stims granulosa cell development; granulosa secrete zona pellucida = primary follicle
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss

23. The EYE
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)
Focuses light thru the vitreous humor onto retina; acts as a converging lens (image is real - inverted)
Epithelial tissue near semniferous tubules
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)

24. STOMACH: no absorption
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion

25. Embryology
vitreous humor - retina - fovea
Direction of differentiation
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...

26. remaining secondary follicle becomes
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap

27. chylomicron concentration in blood after meal
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood
Peak at 1-2hr after meal; chylomicrons themselves have half - life of about 1hr after formation in enterocytes
Chyme (by combined activity of exocrine glands)

28. cAMP - cGMP - calmodulin...
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Follicular (proliferative)= 8d - Luteal (post - ovulation; corpus luteum secretions)= 13d - Menstruation (shed uterine lining if no implantation)= 5

29. What is feces composed of...
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
Hydrostatic pressure forces some plasma thru *fenestrations of the glomerular endothelium* and into Bowman's capsule; B.C. is continuous with lumen of nephron

30. How long are peptides when absorbed at brush border
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
***nicotinic is ionotropic; muscarinic is GPCR

31. The apical side of the villi...
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
Direction of differentiation
Faces the lumen
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord

32. liver receives blood from...
Pancreatic duct (made of acinar cells?)
'Microvilli function as the **primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract**. Because of this vital function - the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compoun
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava

33. Inside the kidney: ...JGA (w/granular cells sensitive to hydrostatic pressure able to secrete renin - activate aldosterone - increase BP) is adjacent to distal tubule - monitors filtrate pressure
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Inactive: rhodopsin is activated by photons; activated rhodopsin hyperpolarizes rod cells - causes photobleaching
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies

34. Epithelium of the sm intestine: enterocytes lined w/brush border (digestion/absorption); goblet cells (mucous); crypts of Lieberkuhn exocrine glands (lysozyme)
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Nitrogen
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots

35. Where do absorbed fats go in the enterocyte
Focuses light thru the vitreous humor onto retina; acts as a converging lens (image is real - inverted)
To the organelle w/ lumen: smooth ER; they are resynthesized into TAGs
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)

36. lysosome pH
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc
5
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border

37. PNS is broken down into
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys

38. How does reabsorption force nutrients across apical membrane of proximal tubule
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts

39. Thus - central nervous sys is...
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane

40. cholinergic receptors: NICTONIC and MUSCARINIC Nicotinic: neuromuscular effectors (ionotropic) Muscarinic: PARA effectors (GPCRs) Adrenergic: SYMP effectors (GPCRs)
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane
5
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit

41. PNS review: SAME DAVE
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Nuclear envelope reassembled in daughter cells; cytokinesis occurs; nucleoli reappear (site of rRNA synthesis)
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.

42. Adrenal cortex hormones (STEROIDS)
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots

43. inhibin secreted by
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein

44. these transport proteins - when concs are high enough...
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein

45. FLAT PG: FSH
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.

46. What is a toxic byproduct of gluconeogenesis from proteins
Injury that does not sever SC (causes deep lesion from back - front) might cause loss of feeling without full loss of motion
Ammonia; must be converted to urea by liver and excreted in urine by kidney
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
Contains lysozyme - which regulates bacteria within intestine; breaks down peptidoglycans (**bact wall); innate immunity

47. Different tissues working together
Focuses light thru the vitreous humor onto retina; acts as a converging lens (image is real - inverted)
Collection of cell bodies; cell processes project out from both ends of ganglion; synapses with interneuron in spinal cord on one end and sensory receptor on other
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
Organs

48. from the loop of henle...
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins
Mostly reabsorbed to liver
vitreous humor - retina - fovea

49. Posterior eye
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
vitreous humor - retina - fovea
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus

50. Human chorionic gonadotropin...
Peak at 1-2hr after meal; chylomicrons themselves have half - life of about 1hr after formation in enterocytes
Increases blood Calcium
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy