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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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1. Inside the kidney: ...JGA (w/granular cells sensitive to hydrostatic pressure able to secrete renin - activate aldosterone - increase BP) is adjacent to distal tubule - monitors filtrate pressure
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
sucrose (gluc+fruc) - lactose (gluc+galactose) - starch (gluc+gluc)
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete

2. ligands are the messenger compounds that target secondary messenger systems on effectors
Many modern drugs are ligands for GPCRs
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Sorts - modifies - concentrates proteins from the ER
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity

3. fructose enters enterocyte by
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
Conjunction of cell body w/axon
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport

4. What force is acting upon chyme to move it forward down sm intestine
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Below hypothalamus

5. What is the function of the loop of Henle
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
Increases solute conc and osmotic pressure of the ***medulla
Digestion
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids

6. pancreas secretes enzymes via
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Pancreatic duct (made of acinar cells?)
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens

7. Human chorionic gonadotropin...
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy

8. What do the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule add up to...
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Moves down thru esophageal sphincter
The renal corpuscle
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu

9. Contrast PNS- Somatic with PNS- Autonomic
Eukaryotes
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons

10. What Changes - Doesn't Change as a result of movement of molecules across membranes in the proximal tubule
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
Diarrhea: excess water loss in feces; poor absorption of vitamins - minerals
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane

11. signal transduction occurs only in
Eukaryotes
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages
Conjunction of cell body w/axon

12. inhibin secreted by
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
Synthesizes lipids (including steroids); detoxifies drugs; is continuous with lumen

13. gradual increase in FSH typical of primary follicle development;
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum

14. bile + fat forms
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons

15. cytosol pH
Epithelial tissue near semniferous tubules
About 7.2
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on
Size of fist; two kidneys; have cortex (steroid hormones) and medulla (catecholamines) - receives about 20% of cardiac output - blood travels down arteries - up veins -'urine is created by the kidney and emptied into the renal pelvis - which is empti

16. For focal point that is nearby - what will the lens look like
Processes: axons - dendrites
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle

17. Where does the bolus go after mouth chews food
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
Moves down thru esophageal sphincter
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)

18. What is secreted into filtrate by cells of the proximal tubule?
***nicotinic is ionotropic; muscarinic is GPCR
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics
Increases solute conc and osmotic pressure of the ***medulla
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)

19. Bile salts and lipase
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
Work together to emulsify fats: bile works as a detergent to increase SA of the fat; increased SA gives more substrate to lipase for digestion
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
Ganglion

20. FSH - LH - HCG - inhibin are...
Peptides
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant

21. amylase acts where on carbs
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
Adrenocorticotropin; stims adrenal cortex release of glucocorticoids (eg cortisol - a steroid) stress hormones via second messenger system using cAMP
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Moves down thru esophageal sphincter

22. What kind of cells make up epithel tiss of stom - then sm intest?
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases

23. Chewing does what?
Needs time for bile - lipase - micelle migration - enterocyte uptake
5
Increases surface area of food ball (bolus)
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)

24. exocrine types
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Fallopian tubes
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal

25. 'Cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are located in....'
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Outer ear= pinna (auricle)- external auditory canal - eardrum (tympanic membrane) inner ear= malleus - incus - stapes - ...oval window - cochlea - where sound is transduced into neural signal...enters cochlea at scala vestibuli - where pressure chang
Focuses light thru the vitreous humor onto retina; acts as a converging lens (image is real - inverted)
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)

26. lysosome pH
Excretes waste products: urea - uric acid - ammonia - phosphate - maintains homeostasis: including body fluid volume (water reabsorption) and solute composition (mineral balance - nutrient reabsorption) - controls *plasma* pH: antiport of Na/K and pr
5
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume

27. pancreatic amylase is much stronger than
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides
Development of placenta begins with implantation; eventually - by end of first trimester - placenta will replace corpus luteum and its estrogen/progest secretions
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages

28. liver and blood glucose...
PH 6.0; this accomplished by pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate which ups pH
It is the animal counterpart of starch; it is more highly- branched - thus releases more glucose monomers upon repeated hydrolysis than starch
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest

29. Stomach has no lacteals
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine

30. How does water cross the apical membrane
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt
Estrogen: steroid; stims LH in luteal surge; causes growth of female sex organs progesterone: prepares/maintains uterus for pregnancy
Processes: axons - dendrites
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient

31. Where else does ADH act
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)

32. How does the body mobilize fat stores
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs
Injury that does not sever SC (causes deep lesion from back - front) might cause loss of feeling without full loss of motion
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors

33. cholinergic receptors: NICTONIC and MUSCARINIC Nicotinic: neuromuscular effectors (ionotropic) Muscarinic: PARA effectors (GPCRs) Adrenergic: SYMP effectors (GPCRs)
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
Excretes waste products: urea - uric acid - ammonia - phosphate - maintains homeostasis: including body fluid volume (water reabsorption) and solute composition (mineral balance - nutrient reabsorption) - controls *plasma* pH: antiport of Na/K and pr
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system

34. Alpha - amylase found where
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
Synthesizes lipids (including steroids); detoxifies drugs; is continuous with lumen
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
5

35. So - following blastocyst implantation (4d) - at approx 2 weeks past fertilization
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation

36. STOMACH: no absorption
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc

37. bundles of collecting ducts are called
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
On the chyme exiting the stomach and entering duodenum thru the pyloric sphincter
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord

38. what cannot cross the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle
Increases blood Calcium
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
vitreous humor - retina - fovea
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate

39. FLAT PG: hGH aka somatotropin
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS

40. when cells hit their limit for prot storage...
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS

41. from thoracic duct - chylomicrons stick to capillary walls...
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus

42. What hormones affect the stomach?
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
Peak at 1-2hr after meal; chylomicrons themselves have half - life of about 1hr after formation in enterocytes
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot

43. E storage per unit mass
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
Carbohydrates are highly hydrated: one water mol per carbon mol - fats are anhydrous: contain more reduced carbons per unit mass - altogether fats contain 6X energy per unit mass
Chylomicrons are much bigger
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides

44. in the presence of ADH what happens to movement of water across nephron membr
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system
Peripheral nervous sys

45. sensory (afferent)/interneurons/motor (efferent)
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate

46. What is the pH at the entrance to the duodenum
Conjunction of cell body w/axon
Inner lining of circulatory system
Glucose
PH 6.0; this accomplished by pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate which ups pH

47. Failure of apoptosis can result in
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
Going up - water - impermeable: salt is actively pumped out - filtrate osmolarity goes down as salt leaves
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop

48. Different tissues working together
Organs
Size of fist; two kidneys; have cortex (steroid hormones) and medulla (catecholamines) - receives about 20% of cardiac output - blood travels down arteries - up veins -'urine is created by the kidney and emptied into the renal pelvis - which is empti
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i

49. small intestine=
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
Secreted by implanted egg; HCG prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum; HCG in blood/urine is first sign of pregnancy
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies

50. these transport proteins - when concs are high enough...
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine

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