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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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1. Morula (...totipotent)
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage

2. motor (efferent) neurons --> VENTRAL
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc

3. Aldosterone (sodium uptake - potassium secretion)
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)

4. Epithelium of the sm intestine: enterocytes lined w/brush border (digestion/absorption); goblet cells (mucous); crypts of Lieberkuhn exocrine glands (lysozyme)
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots

5. Kidney physiology...

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6. in the presence of ADH what happens to movement of water across nephron membr
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
90-140 mg/dl
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop

7. what cannot cross the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)

8. important because in meiosis germ - line cells begin as 46 2N w/ 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes which are replicated in S phase of interphase to 23 pairs of sister chromatids = still 46 2N
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord
Follicular (proliferative)= 8d - Luteal (post - ovulation; corpus luteum secretions)= 13d - Menstruation (shed uterine lining if no implantation)= 5

9. 90% digestion - absorption occurs in...
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Mostly reabsorbed to liver

10. Glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis
Contains lysozyme - which regulates bacteria within intestine; breaks down peptidoglycans (**bact wall); innate immunity
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)
Notochord (mesoderm) induces ectoderm to thicken into neural plate --->neural tube --->spinal cord
Liver Functions pt. 2 - Carb metabolism: blood is sent straight to liver from sm intest thru portal vein; liver is control center for blood glucose; _______________ - fat metabolism: oxidizes fat for energy by beta - oxidation - forms most lipoprotei

11. protein absorption at enterocyte
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
An endogenous morphine
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)

12. Four tissues
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
5

13. How does duod deal with hi HCl from stom
Increases blood Calcium
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0
Lower blood pH

14. What (typically - ie not pre - ovulation) feeds back to decrease LH - FSH production?
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop
Testosterone and estradiol

15. overview of prot digestion
Peak at 1-2hr after meal; chylomicrons themselves have half - life of about 1hr after formation in enterocytes
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Testosterone and estradiol

16. Where do absorbed fats go in the enterocyte
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
To the organelle w/ lumen: smooth ER; they are resynthesized into TAGs
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss

17. keep in mind that enterocyte is like a regular euk cell
Digestion
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons

18. What is feces composed of...
Calcitonin (peptide; lowers blood Ca); T3/T4 (tyrosine - derived; increase basal metabolic rate); T4= thyroxine
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
An endogenous morphine
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot

19. in fat and liver cells monoglycerides and ffas are once again
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
***nicotinic is ionotropic; muscarinic is GPCR
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver

20. mucus cells line the stomach...
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts

21. cytosol pH
About 7.2
Below hypothalamus
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)

22. FLAT PG: hGH aka somatotropin
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies

23. hypothalamus controls anterior pit - posterior pit release with inhibitory/releasing hormones of its own; these should have fairly self - explanatory names
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Zygotes are diploid
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate

24. medium for paracrine hormones
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
Many modern drugs are ligands for GPCRs
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)

25. Energy from fat - prot - gluc
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
Development of placenta begins with implantation; eventually - by end of first trimester - placenta will replace corpus luteum and its estrogen/progest secretions
Lower blood pH

26. zygotic life cycle
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles

27. micelles also pick up
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane
Two perpendicular semicircular canals involved in balance - equilibrium
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons

28. light detection via GPCRs
Diarrhea: excess water loss in feces; poor absorption of vitamins - minerals
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver

29. Fructose relates how structurally to glucose
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt
Serous membrane (slick - reducing friction) that forms lining of the coelom --> secretes lubricating fluid
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose

30. at lo blood sugar...
Faces the lumen
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
To the organelle w/ lumen: smooth ER; they are resynthesized into TAGs

31. Thus inhibiting parietal cells could do What to blood pH
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs
Increases blood Calcium
Lower blood pH

32. The apical side of the villi...
ER
Faces the lumen
Increases blood Calcium
Diarrhea: excess water loss in feces; poor absorption of vitamins - minerals

33. After meiosis I - daughter cells are...

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34. What is a nerve? (PNS)
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
Collection of cell bodies; cell processes project out from both ends of ganglion; synapses with interneuron in spinal cord on one end and sensory receptor on other

35. What surrounds the hydrophilic heads of the new TAGs
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
The wall of the body or of a body cavity or hollow structure

36. What Changes - Doesn't Change as a result of movement of molecules across membranes in the proximal tubule
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS

37. SYMP neurons originate in= PARA neurons originate in=
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons
Normally contracted
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity

38. energy source of neurons
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
About 7.2
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Glucose and ketone bodies (not from glycogen stores)

39. PNS review: SAME DAVE
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
Smooth ER
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males

40. Adrenal medulla hormones (TYR- DERIVED)
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
Faces the lumen
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin

41. Creating gradients requires what?
Peptides
Stims release of tyrosine - derived horms T3/T4 (increase basal metabolic rate); TSH increases thyroid cell size - number - rate of T3/T4 synth -----> thus - iodine deficiency causes swollen thyroid due to lack of neg feedback onto TSH in anterior pi
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine

42. Failure of apoptosis can result in
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine

43. only monosaccharides are absorbed
Direction of differentiation
Carbohydrates are highly hydrated: one water mol per carbon mol - fats are anhydrous: contain more reduced carbons per unit mass - altogether fats contain 6X energy per unit mass
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
Which is why lactase - maltase - dextrinase - sucrase are on brush border

44. How does water cross the apical membrane
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides

45. from thoracic duct - chylomicrons stick to capillary walls...
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies

46. Embryology
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
Beta cells
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol

47. Where does the bolus go after mouth chews food
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
Moves down thru esophageal sphincter

48. What is the endothelium?
The crypts of Lieberkuhn: sm intestine pH is not right; brush border enzs won't work right
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin
Inner lining of circulatory system

49. from the loop of henle...
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins

50. Difference between euk and prok flagella
Ammonia; must be converted to urea by liver and excreted in urine by kidney
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera
Bacterial flagellin: hollow filament (not microtub); euk: 9+2 microtubule w/dynein bridges
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest

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