MCAT Prep - 2

Instructions:

• Answer 50 questions in 15 minutes.
• If you are not ready to take this test, you can study here.
• Match each statement with the correct term.
• Don't refresh. All questions and answers are randomly picked and ordered every time you load a test.

This is a study tool. The 3 wrong answers for each question are randomly chosen from answers to other questions. So, you might find at times the answers obvious, but you will see it re-enforces your understanding as you take the test each time.

1. Polypeptides are formed with what kind of reaction?
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
Zygotes are diploid
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu


2. Where does fertilization occur
Fallopian tubes
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
vitreous humor - retina - fovea
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0


3. cholinergic receptors: NICTONIC and MUSCARINIC Nicotinic: neuromuscular effectors (ionotropic) Muscarinic: PARA effectors (GPCRs) Adrenergic: SYMP effectors (GPCRs)
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete


4. After meiosis II - Male

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5. Liver Functions
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics


6. What does peptic refer to in general
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
Digestion
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)


7. During ejaculation - sperm...

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8. Does bile digest fat?
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep


9. liver receives blood from...
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)


10. Meiosis II: EQUATIONAL DIVISION
The crypts of Lieberkuhn: sm intestine pH is not right; brush border enzs won't work right
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal
PH 6.0; this accomplished by pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate which ups pH
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap


11. What is the adventitia?
Pancreatic duct (made of acinar cells?)
Injury that does not sever SC (causes deep lesion from back - front) might cause loss of feeling without full loss of motion
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle


12. Inside the kidney: ...JGA (w/granular cells sensitive to hydrostatic pressure able to secrete renin - activate aldosterone - increase BP) is adjacent to distal tubule - monitors filtrate pressure
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Formed in kidney (nephron) - sent thru renal pelvis - down ureter to bladder - drained by urethra'
Arrested at primary oocyte; hypothalamus GnRH->FSH released at puberty stims granulosa cell development; granulosa secrete zona pellucida = primary follicle


13. Where does the juxtaglomerular apparatus come into play...renin --->inc angiotensins -->inc aldosterone - ups BP
Peak at 1-2hr after meal; chylomicrons themselves have half - life of about 1hr after formation in enterocytes
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)


14. AP- peptides (FSH - LH - ACTH - TSH - prolactin - hGH); PP- peptides (ADH - oxytocin); thyroid - peptide *and* tyr - derived (T3/T4 - calcitonin); parathyroid - peptide (PTH; raise blood Ca via pathway involving vitamin D)
Notochord (mesoderm) induces ectoderm to thicken into neural plate --->neural tube --->spinal cord
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Adrenal gland -- AC: steroids (cortisol - aldosterone); AM: catecholamines (epi - norepi); Islets of langerhans: peptides (insulin/glucagon) ANTAGONISTS: calcitonin (thyroid - peptide lowers Ca in blood); parathyroid hormone - peptide - vitamin D pat
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae


15. sensory (afferent)/interneurons/motor (efferent)
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
Neurons may perform one of three functions....
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle


16. sensory (afferent) neurons
Adrenal gland -- AC: steroids (cortisol - aldosterone); AM: catecholamines (epi - norepi); Islets of langerhans: peptides (insulin/glucagon) ANTAGONISTS: calcitonin (thyroid - peptide lowers Ca in blood); parathyroid hormone - peptide - vitamin D pat
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector


17. When 'coumadin targets liver enzymes to act as anticoagulant'...
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
Estradiol


18. Sensory - motor neurons are part of which nervous system
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Inner lining of circulatory system
Peripheral nervous sys
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop


19. In IBS - What is defective

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20. cAMP - cGMP - calmodulin...
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis


21. Embryology
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...


22. Neuronal cell bodies have extensions ie
Processes: axons - dendrites
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)


23. The path from blood plasma to urine

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24. Spinal cord horns (thick knobs) point
Ventrally (picture skeletal vertebrae)
Secrete intrinsic factor; important for absorbing vitamin B12 in sm intest
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
Calcitonin (peptide; lowers blood Ca); T3/T4 (tyrosine - derived; increase basal metabolic rate); T4= thyroxine


25. A contracted iris occurs with what kind of stimulation
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)
Hydrostatic pressure forces some plasma thru *fenestrations of the glomerular endothelium* and into Bowman's capsule; B.C. is continuous with lumen of nephron
Ganglion


26. thyroid hormones: Not All One Kind of HORM
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
Calcitonin (peptide; lowers blood Ca); T3/T4 (tyrosine - derived; increase basal metabolic rate); T4= thyroxine
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes


27. signal transduction occurs by 2 paths
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded


28. hypothalamus - AP - ACTH - cortisol release from adrenal cortex
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose
Conjunction of cell body w/axon
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****


29. trypsin is secreted by
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
90-140 mg/dl
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides


30. interneurons
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons


31. liver and blood glucose...
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle


32. lysosome main function and derivation
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop


33. almost all exocytosed proteins pass through this
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)
Calcitonin (peptide; lowers blood Ca); T3/T4 (tyrosine - derived; increase basal metabolic rate); T4= thyroxine
Smooth ER
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons


34. oxytocin
Posterior pituitary hormone; acts on uterus - mammary glands; causes uterine contractions - milk ejection
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Break down TAGs to monoglycerides and free fatty acids
Form barrier to extracellular fluid


35. Different organs working together
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
Below hypothalamus
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons


36. Examples of GPCRs in sensory systems/signal transduction: What is the ligand or messenger in each case? ...SIGHT - SMELL - MOOD - FIGHT/FLIGHT etc
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Ammonia; must be converted to urea by liver and excreted in urine by kidney
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons


37. From that point...
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
Fovea (highest amount of cones)


38. What are the memb - bound enzymes of the brush border?
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin


39. For focal point that is nearby - what will the lens look like
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Calcitonin (peptide; lowers blood Ca); T3/T4 (tyrosine - derived; increase basal metabolic rate); T4= thyroxine


40. What happens when rod cell is depolarized
Processes: axons - dendrites
Pancreatic duct (made of acinar cells?)
Night vision
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...


41. What is the net effect of the distal tubule
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
Lowers osmolarity of the filtrate (IONS - Water Are Taken Back Up By The Kidney)--->at the end of the distal tubule (the collecting tubule) is where aldosterone acts - along with the JGA
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)
90-140 mg/dl


42. therefore - How does plasma leave capillary at the renal corpuscle

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43. STOMACH: no absorption
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
Going up - water - impermeable: salt is actively pumped out - filtrate osmolarity goes down as salt leaves
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)


44. position of AP...
Estrogen: steroid; stims LH in luteal surge; causes growth of female sex organs progesterone: prepares/maintains uterus for pregnancy
Below hypothalamus
Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap


45. The esophageal sphincter is...
It is the animal counterpart of starch; it is more highly- branched - thus releases more glucose monomers upon repeated hydrolysis than starch
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
Normally contracted


46. Where does blood to be filtered by kidney enter the nephron?

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47. Alpha - amylase found where
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides
Two perpendicular semicircular canals involved in balance - equilibrium


48. pancreas secretes enzymes via
cornea (1.4 refractory index; bends light) - pupil (size of pupil is determined by contraction state of the iris) - aqueous humor
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Pancreatic duct (made of acinar cells?)
90-140 mg/dl


49. these transport proteins - when concs are high enough...
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****
The renal corpuscle
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'
Can be saturated; conc of a solute is called the transport maximum --->excess goes into urine


50. PNS review: SAME DAVE
At the first capillary bed of the nephron called the glomerulus which is encased by ***Bowman's capsule
Sensory neurons are affector; motor neurons are effector // dorsal afferent (dorsal - Back- side of spinal cord carries sensory signals to brain; ventral effector
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)