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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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1. insulin secreted by
Beta cells
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal

2. cytosol pH
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
About 7.2
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient

3. Embryology
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
Processes: axons - dendrites

4. motor (efferent) neurons --> VENTRAL
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
Processes: axons - dendrites
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles

5. little by little chyme is squirted out thru pyloric sphincter
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant

6. A group of cell bodies in CNS is nucleus - outside CNS is...
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
Chylomicrons are much bigger
Ganglion

7. Blastocyst
Excretes waste products: urea - uric acid - ammonia - phosphate - maintains homeostasis: including body fluid volume (water reabsorption) and solute composition (mineral balance - nutrient reabsorption) - controls *plasma* pH: antiport of Na/K and pr
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant

8. examples of different cavities... (compartments for viscera)
Where lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs; products diffuse into target tiss (mostly liver - adipose tissue)
Chylomicrons are much bigger
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)

9. What are the memb - bound enzymes of the brush border?
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages
About 7.2
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Arrested at primary oocyte; hypothalamus GnRH->FSH released at puberty stims granulosa cell development; granulosa secrete zona pellucida = primary follicle

10. Leydig cells produce
Presence of fat - prot in duodenum causes release of **gastric inhibitory peptide**; result is slower stomach contraction; slower emptying into duod thru pyloric sphincter (slower chyme secretion); more time to properly digest - absorb nutrients
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Testosterone upon stim by LH

11. important because in meiosis germ - line cells begin as 46 2N w/ 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes which are replicated in S phase of interphase to 23 pairs of sister chromatids = still 46 2N
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Growth 1 (G1) phase: STRUCTURAL ProteinS - ENZYMES; This is a very active period - where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins - including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes cons
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys

12. thyroid hormones: Not All One Kind of HORM
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes
Eukaryotes
Calcitonin (peptide; lowers blood Ca); T3/T4 (tyrosine - derived; increase basal metabolic rate); T4= thyroxine

13. what happens when glycogen stores are saturated and blood sugar remains high?
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Presence of fat - prot in duodenum causes release of **gastric inhibitory peptide**; result is slower stomach contraction; slower emptying into duod thru pyloric sphincter (slower chyme secretion); more time to properly digest - absorb nutrients

14. portal vein physiology...

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15. parathyroid hormone
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded
Increases blood Calcium
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul

16. Kidney physiology...

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17. sporic life cycle
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
Travels vas deferens - urethra; mixes with prostate fluids - seminal vesicles - couper's gland - etc
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles

18. albumin has What affect on blood osmotic pressure
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord

19. Stomach has no lacteals
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Work together to emulsify fats: bile works as a detergent to increase SA of the fat; increased SA gives more substrate to lipase for digestion
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state

20. review: parietals secrete intrinsic factor...
Two perpendicular semicircular canals involved in balance - equilibrium
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine

21. Difference between euk and prok flagella
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
Bacterial flagellin: hollow filament (not microtub); euk: 9+2 microtubule w/dynein bridges
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback

22. A pinpoint iris is contracted or uncontracted
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Secondary oocyte (stim'd by LH stimulation of theca cells causing release of testosterone - converted to estradiol; eventually brings about luteal surge -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->ovum released during ovulation into fallopian tube; burst follicle becom
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
Normally contracted

23. What is the mesentery?
Buildup of macromolecules in lysosome due to deficient lysosome enzymes
Lower blood pH
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue

24. How is glucose absorbed in sm intest
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
Low because AAs are immediately used in translation
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)

25. parathyroid hormones
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)

26. liver receives blood from...
To the organelle w/ lumen: smooth ER; they are resynthesized into TAGs
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava

27. What hormones affect the stomach?
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
Digestion
At the first capillary bed of the nephron called the glomerulus which is encased by ***Bowman's capsule

28. when cells hit their limit for prot storage...
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
AAs can be burned for energy or converted to fat for storage
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine

29. overview of prot digestion
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
Chyme (by combined activity of exocrine glands)

30. lysosome main function and derivation
Presence of fat - prot in duodenum causes release of **gastric inhibitory peptide**; result is slower stomach contraction; slower emptying into duod thru pyloric sphincter (slower chyme secretion); more time to properly digest - absorb nutrients
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi
Ammonia; must be converted to urea by liver and excreted in urine by kidney
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc

31. What is feces composed of...
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)

32. STOMACH: no absorption
Work together to emulsify fats: bile works as a detergent to increase SA of the fat; increased SA gives more substrate to lipase for digestion
Outer ear= pinna (auricle)- external auditory canal - eardrum (tympanic membrane) inner ear= malleus - incus - stapes - ...oval window - cochlea - where sound is transduced into neural signal...enters cochlea at scala vestibuli - where pressure chang
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
vitreous humor - retina - fovea

33. Liver Functions
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit

34. exocrine types
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase

35. What do villli do
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons

36. components of interstitial fluid
An endogenous morphine
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids

37. energy source of neurons
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Inner lining of blood vessels
Glucose and ketone bodies (not from glycogen stores)

38. physiology of gall bladder - liver and pancreatic secretions
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Combined via conjunction of pancreatic duct and common bile duct; common bile duct originates at **cystic duct where gall bladder and liver secretions combine ..cystic duct+common bile duct+pancreatic duct --->into duodenum

39. Four tissues
Faces the lumen
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors

40. Sensory neuron cell bodies vs. somatic motor cell bodies
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord
Normally contracted
Ganglion
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan

41. from the loop of henle...
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins

42. Where does fertilization occur
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt
Fallopian tubes
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption

43. What is the net effect of the loop of Henle
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0

44. chylomicron concentration in blood after meal
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
Meiosis creates germ cells
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on
Peak at 1-2hr after meal; chylomicrons themselves have half - life of about 1hr after formation in enterocytes

45. What surrounds the hydrophilic heads of the new TAGs
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
Testosterone upon stim by LH
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system

46. After meiosis I - daughter cells are...

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47. What is an endorphin?
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins
Nuclear envelope reassembled in daughter cells; cytokinesis occurs; nucleoli reappear (site of rRNA synthesis)
An endogenous morphine

48. medium for paracrine hormones
Inner lining of blood vessels
Hydrostatic pressure forces some plasma thru *fenestrations of the glomerular endothelium* and into Bowman's capsule; B.C. is continuous with lumen of nephron
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)

49. Adrenal medulla hormones (TYR- DERIVED)
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
Organs
(diploid and haploid individuals = ALTERNATION of GENERATIONS) a fusion of gametic and zygotic life cycles
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)

50. A contracted iris occurs with what kind of stimulation
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
Meiosis creates germ cells
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)

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