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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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1. What is secreted into filtrate by cells of the proximal tubule?
Fallopian tubes
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Going up - water - impermeable: salt is actively pumped out - filtrate osmolarity goes down as salt leaves
Drugs - toxins - bile pigments (color the urine) - uric acid - antibiotics

2. Aldosterone (sodium uptake - potassium secretion)
The crypts of Lieberkuhn: sm intestine pH is not right; brush border enzs won't work right
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)
Inactive: rhodopsin is activated by photons; activated rhodopsin hyperpolarizes rod cells - causes photobleaching

3. Inside the kidney: ...JGA (w/granular cells sensitive to hydrostatic pressure able to secrete renin - activate aldosterone - increase BP) is adjacent to distal tubule - monitors filtrate pressure
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan
Called a tract in the CNS; bundling together of axons/dendrites thru which many diff signals pass; many many neurons are bundled together into a single nerve
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine

4. How do nutrients move?
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on

5. little by little chyme is squirted out thru pyloric sphincter
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Travels vas deferens - urethra; mixes with prostate fluids - seminal vesicles - couper's gland - etc
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)

6. when thinking of proteins - think
Nitrogen
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol
Combined via conjunction of pancreatic duct and common bile duct; common bile duct originates at **cystic duct where gall bladder and liver secretions combine ..cystic duct+common bile duct+pancreatic duct --->into duodenum

7. What does peroxisome do
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle
TAGS--->FFAs; remember that FFAs are broken down for energy in mito matrix by beta - oxidation
Ketone bodies; thus excessive reliance on fat for energy (eg low carb diets) results in ketosis; blood acidity increases

8. serous membranes have a viscera - facing layer and a body wall - facing layer
Epithelial tissue near semniferous tubules
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
Glucocorticoid (cortisol); mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis

9. inhibin secreted by
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
Testes>Semeniferous tubules>Sertoli cells; feedback on AP FSH production

10. A group of cell bodies in CNS is nucleus - outside CNS is...
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)
Ganglion
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys

11. PNS nerve signal
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'

12. Epithelium of the sm intestine: enterocytes lined w/brush border (digestion/absorption); goblet cells (mucous); crypts of Lieberkuhn exocrine glands (lysozyme)
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Within the paravertebral ganglion - running parallel to spinal cord

13. almost all cells can store Some glycogen - but...
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility
Only musc and esp ** liver can store large amounts
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue

14. 'Cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are located in....'
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
Estrogen: steroid; stims LH in luteal surge; causes growth of female sex organs progesterone: prepares/maintains uterus for pregnancy
Chylomicrons are much bigger
Stims release of tyrosine - derived horms T3/T4 (increase basal metabolic rate); TSH increases thyroid cell size - number - rate of T3/T4 synth -----> thus - iodine deficiency causes swollen thyroid due to lack of neg feedback onto TSH in anterior pi

15. How does reabsorption force nutrients across apical membrane of proximal tubule
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)

16. examples of different cavities... (compartments for viscera)
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
Buildup of macromolecules in lysosome due to deficient lysosome enzymes
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle

17. review: parietals secrete intrinsic factor...
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver
In gastric pits; secretions combine into gastric juice

18. 90% digestion - absorption occurs in...
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Direction of differentiation
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
Prophase I: crossing over occurs; nuclear envelope is absorbed into ER; chromosomes condense)

19. Induction affects...
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Direction of differentiation
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme

20. position of AP...
Below hypothalamus
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms

21. energy source of neurons
Glucose and ketone bodies (not from glycogen stores)
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose
***nicotinic is ionotropic; muscarinic is GPCR
Gall bladder - pancreatic secretions increase - arrive via ampulla of vater (duct glands); insulin secretion increases (fed state; ductless glands)

22. When 'coumadin targets liver enzymes to act as anticoagulant'...
It targets liver conc of prothrombin - fibrinogen etc
Trypsin(- ogen; activates other panc enzymes after it is activated by enterokinase of sm intest); chymotrypsin - amylase - lipase
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans

23. Peritoneal refers to...
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume

24. peroxisome is derived from this
ER
Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose
90-140 mg/dl
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH

25. What do lipases do
Interneurons working to integrate signals received from the peripheral nervous system (sense organs)
TAGS--->FFAs; remember that FFAs are broken down for energy in mito matrix by beta - oxidation
Break down TAGs to monoglycerides and free fatty acids
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion

26. Meiosis I Metaphase I
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'
Glucose

27. Four tissues
Carbohydrates are highly hydrated: one water mol per carbon mol - fats are anhydrous: contain more reduced carbons per unit mass - altogether fats contain 6X energy per unit mass
Lowers osmolarity of the filtrate (IONS - Water Are Taken Back Up By The Kidney)--->at the end of the distal tubule (the collecting tubule) is where aldosterone acts - along with the JGA
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Serous membrane (slick - reducing friction) that forms lining of the coelom --> secretes lubricating fluid

28. What surrounds the hydrophilic heads of the new TAGs
Organs
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
It is the animal counterpart of starch; it is more highly- branched - thus releases more glucose monomers upon repeated hydrolysis than starch

29. How does the body mobilize fat stores
Gonadotropin releasing hormone - GnRH
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)
Duodenum (wraps around pancreas; most digestion occurs here) - jejunum (pH 7-9; 2m) - ileum
***starting with adipose tiss: FFAs are transported in the blood by albumin (major component of blood plasma); one albumin typically carries three fatty acid molecules but can hold up to 30 FAs

30. In effect LH - FSH stimulate
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)
sucrose (gluc+fruc) - lactose (gluc+galactose) - starch (gluc+gluc)
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons

31. How is glucose absorbed in sm intest
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
'Increased absorptive area is useful because digested nutrients (including sugars and amino acids) pass into the villi through diffusion - which is effective only at short distances. In other words - **increased surface area (in contact with the flui

32. parathyroid hormones
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity

33. What do villli do
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin

34. What (typically - ie not pre - ovulation) feeds back to decrease LH - FSH production?
Sensory (afferent - dorsal) - motor (efferent - ventral)
Testosterone and estradiol
pericardial cavity - pleural cavity (contains lungs) - peritoneal cavity (abdominal)
Interstitial fluid (eg prostaglandins - cytokines)

35. axon hillock physiology
Lowers osmolarity of the filtrate (IONS - Water Are Taken Back Up By The Kidney)--->at the end of the distal tubule (the collecting tubule) is where aldosterone acts - along with the JGA
Conjunction of cell body w/axon
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)
Sudiferous (sweat) - sebaceous - digestive (bile - pancreatic enzs) - mucosal

36. What Changes - Doesn't Change as a result of movement of molecules across membranes in the proximal tubule
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
Break down TAGs to monoglycerides and free fatty acids

37. at lo blood sugar...
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'
Secondary spermatocyte (stim'd by FSH from Sertoli cells -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->spermatid - which matures further into spermatozoa; released into semeniferous tubule; transported to epididymis
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis); at hi blood sugar it builds up glycogen (glycogenesis)
Pancreas; active at sm intestinal pH; hydrolyzes peptide bonds of (pepsin - digested) peptides

38. oxytocin
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer
Thru tight junctions by favorable osmotic gradient
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'
Posterior pituitary hormone; acts on uterus - mammary glands; causes uterine contractions - milk ejection

39. what else is located in the inner ear (not directly related to auditory)
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Chyme (by combined activity of exocrine glands)
Peptide; prolactin promotes milk production; prolactin release is stimulated by act of suckling - which in turn inhibits menstrual cycle
Two perpendicular semicircular canals involved in balance - equilibrium

40. Cell determination begins At what stage of development
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)
Four 23 N daughter cells are formed from one 46 2N mother (germ - line) cell; four haploid gametes
After morula - with blastocyst (+8 cell count)--->totipotent to embryonic stem cell and so on

41. spermatogonia arise from
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop
Epithelial tissue near semniferous tubules
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
On the chyme exiting the stomach and entering duodenum thru the pyloric sphincter

42. Different organs working together
SYMP: spinal cord --->paravetebral ganglion PARA: spinal cord - brain; cell processes --->ganglion near effector organ (preganglionic neurons) extend outside of spinal cord to synapse at ganglia - go on along postganglionic neurons
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit
Testosterone upon stim by LH
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)

43. Contrast PNS- Somatic with PNS- Autonomic
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)
Beta cells
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'

44. A contracted iris occurs with what kind of stimulation
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion

45. testosterone can be aromatized to...
Fat is insoluble in blood and requires a carrier like lipoproteins (vLDL...HDL) or albumins; ...vLDL has hi triglycerides - hi cholesterol
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)
Estradiol

46. Morula (...totipotent)
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue

47. Meiosis II: EQUATIONAL DIVISION
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
The crypts of Lieberkuhn: sm intestine pH is not right; brush border enzs won't work right
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap

48. Thus inhibiting parietal cells could do What to blood pH
Lower blood pH
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
cornea (1.4 refractory index; bends light) - pupil (size of pupil is determined by contraction state of the iris) - aqueous humor
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle

49. cAMP - cGMP - calmodulin...
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
Eukaryotes
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)

50. sensory (afferent)/interneurons/motor (efferent)
cornea (1.4 refractory index; bends light) - pupil (size of pupil is determined by contraction state of the iris) - aqueous humor
Inactive: rhodopsin is activated by photons; activated rhodopsin hyperpolarizes rod cells - causes photobleaching
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
Neurons may perform one of three functions....

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MCAT Prep - 2

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