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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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1. Blastocyst
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant
'visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag - like coelom'

2. Some PNS nerves are found in brain - spinal cord
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
Estradiol
90-140 mg/dl

3. After meiosis I - daughter cells are...

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4. What is endothelium?
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
Nuclear envelope reassembled in daughter cells; cytokinesis occurs; nucleoli reappear (site of rRNA synthesis)
Focuses light thru the vitreous humor onto retina; acts as a converging lens (image is real - inverted)
Inner lining of blood vessels

5. What do villli do
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)
Stores blood: when expanded liver serves as blood reservoir for body - filters blood: Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines - destroys bad RBCs: also done by Kupfer cells - detoxifies blood: detoxified chemicals are excreted eit

6. pancreatic enzymes are zymogens
At the first capillary bed of the nephron called the glomerulus which is encased by ***Bowman's capsule
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase in the brush border; in turn - it activates other enzymes
Secondary spermatocyte (stim'd by FSH from Sertoli cells -->EQUATIONAL DIVISION-->spermatid - which matures further into spermatozoa; released into semeniferous tubule; transported to epididymis

7. How do nutrients move?
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Increases blood Calcium
From lumenal (apical) to enterocyte to basolateral side of epithelial tissue

8. Gland: ovaries
Maintains hi estrogen levels; body does not recognize luteal surge - ovulation does not occur; hi progesterone can lessen shedding by thickening the uterine lining
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
Estrogen: steroid; stims LH in luteal surge; causes growth of female sex organs progesterone: prepares/maintains uterus for pregnancy

9. What are the major carbohydrates
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Break down TAGs to monoglycerides and free fatty acids
sucrose (gluc+fruc) - lactose (gluc+galactose) - starch (gluc+gluc)
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)

10. ADH
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc
After 4 day+ - morula cells have formed fluid - filled ball (blastocyst); this implants in uterus at day 5-7; blastocyst is made up of EMBRYONIC STEM Cells; once implanted w/blastocyst - female is pregnant

11. protein absorption at enterocyte
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
Amino acid monomers - di - tri absorbed by symport at enterocyte; each AA has slightly diff mechanism; from entero - AAs enter bloodstream where they are taken up by all cells of the body - esp the liver by active or facilitated transport (NEVER PASS
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)

12. 80-90% fat absorbed this way
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus
Injury that does not sever SC (causes deep lesion from back - front) might cause loss of feeling without full loss of motion
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct

13. zygotic life cycle
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Processes: axons - dendrites

14. Failure of apoptosis can result in
PH 6.0; this accomplished by pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate which ups pH
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Small amounts of hydrolyzed phospholipids and cholesterol: like other fat mols these can diffuse thru enterocyte membrane
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop

15. Between meals most fats appear in blood as
Know that 90% digestion - absorption occurs in sm intestine --> fine breakdown of carbs - fat - prots
Diarrhea: excess water loss in feces; poor absorption of vitamins - minerals
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc

16. in the dark is rhodopsin active or inactive?
Size of fist; two kidneys; have cortex (steroid hormones) and medulla (catecholamines) - receives about 20% of cardiac output - blood travels down arteries - up veins -'urine is created by the kidney and emptied into the renal pelvis - which is empti
Inactive: rhodopsin is activated by photons; activated rhodopsin hyperpolarizes rod cells - causes photobleaching
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability

17. What is main difference is signal transmission in nicotinic vs muscarinic?
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
***nicotinic is ionotropic; muscarinic is GPCR
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
Neurons may perform one of three functions....

18. PNS is broken down into
Somatic nervous sys - autonomic nervous sys
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
Photon (hv)- rhodopsin - conformation change - GPCR- Na less permeable - hyperpolarized rod cells - generates AP= photobleaching at visible light wavelengths (390-700nm)

19. euk cell has two principal sides
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
Bacterial flagellin: hollow filament (not microtub); euk: 9+2 microtubule w/dynein bridges
Prod of steroid hormones in testes - ovaries

20. review: parietals secrete intrinsic factor...
Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins
Comes into play in the large intestine - where vitamin b12 is absorbed w/help of E. coli; thus; must travel thru bloodstream to large intestine
Meiosis creates germ cells

21. Where would materials slated for digestion go?
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0
Lysosome
Testosterone upon stim by LH

22. liver receives blood from...
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons
Stomach - sm intest - spleen - pancreas from the hepatic portal vein...all blood that passes thru liver go thru flattened spaces called the ***hepatic sinusoids -->hepatic vein --->vena cava
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons

23. Different organs working together
Mostly reabsorbed to liver
Excretes waste products: urea - uric acid - ammonia - phosphate - maintains homeostasis: including body fluid volume (water reabsorption) and solute composition (mineral balance - nutrient reabsorption) - controls *plasma* pH: antiport of Na/K and pr
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)
Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose

24. Local vs long - distance mediators
Somatic sensory = dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord); somatic effector = ventral horns of spinal cord
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete

25. Which fats are not absorbed like this
Smaller - more water soluble short - chain FAs go directly to bloodstream at villi capillaries
Posterior pituitary hormone; acts on uterus - mammary glands; causes uterine contractions - milk ejection
Renal pyramids --->renal calyx-->renal pelvis -->ureter -->urethra
'Microvilli function as the **primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract**. Because of this vital function - the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compoun

26. Glucose is a .... sugar; fructose is a .... sugar
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
Size of fist; two kidneys; have cortex (steroid hormones) and medulla (catecholamines) - receives about 20% of cardiac output - blood travels down arteries - up veins -'urine is created by the kidney and emptied into the renal pelvis - which is empti
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation

27. Morula (...totipotent)
Eg spinal nerve - cranial nerve; Not All Nervous Tissue In Brain - SC Is CNS Tissue
Mostly reabsorbed to liver
Receive signals from receptor cell w/ ability to interact with its environment; 99% sensory input is discarded
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage

28. Where is bile produced
In liver (RBC recycling of heme); stored in gall bladder; released via cystic duct to common bile duct (shared w/liver); common bile duct joins up with panc duct...everything feeds into the sm intest at the ampulla of vater**
On the chyme exiting the stomach and entering duodenum thru the pyloric sphincter
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood

29. Path of food entering body...
Processes: axons - dendrites
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus
On to the distal tubule where sodium - calcium are reabsorbed - protons - bicarbonate - potassium are secreted via membrane transport proteins
Inner lining of blood vessels

30. How does reabsorption force nutrients across apical membrane of proximal tubule
Via secondary active transport proteins (COSTS E TO FILTER BLOOD - ESTABLISH FLUID/ION BALANCE)
Fallopian tubes
= catecholamines; fight/flight; vasoconstrictors of internal organs - skin; vasodilators of skel musc; also considered stress hormones; epinephrine - norepinephrine
HCl; secreted by parietal cells under stim by gastrin

31. Tight junctions
23 N; 23 chromosomes and haploid (no homologous chromosomes); each chromosome has two sister chromatids Male: primary spermatocyte -->REDUCTIONAL DIVISION (first stim'd at puberty by GnRH - LH-->secondary spermatocyte Female: primary oocyte (arreste
Monitors filtrate pressure in the distal tubule; has specialized cells (granular cells) that secrete an enzyme (**renin); renin initiates regulatory cascade that produces angiotensin I - II - III that stim adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone... ...
Form barrier to extracellular fluid
Maintains hi estrogen levels; body does not recognize luteal surge - ovulation does not occur; hi progesterone can lessen shedding by thickening the uterine lining

32. What is a normal blood glucose range
Bacterial flagellin: hollow filament (not microtub); euk: 9+2 microtubule w/dynein bridges
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
Increase surface area of sm intestine; this improves digestion (enzymes adsorbed to villi) and absorption
90-140 mg/dl

33. Ovum development is halted At what stage until fertilization...
Di - tri - peptides; inside enterocytes are hydrolyzed to amino acids
Hormones --->stimulate exocrine glands - acetylcholine (increases all secretion of gastric pits) - gastrin (from G cells) - histamine (increases HCl secretion of parietals) ...Ach increases all secretions; gastrin increases gastric acid (parietal cel
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids

34. Different tissues working together
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Organs
Collection of cell bodies; cell processes project out from both ends of ganglion; synapses with interneuron in spinal cord on one end and sensory receptor on other
Which is why lactase - maltase - dextrinase - sucrase are on brush border

35. cAMP - cGMP - calmodulin...
Stims release of tyrosine - derived horms T3/T4 (increase basal metabolic rate); TSH increases thyroid cell size - number - rate of T3/T4 synth -----> thus - iodine deficiency causes swollen thyroid due to lack of neg feedback onto TSH in anterior pi
Mediate complex cell processes thru eg phosphorylation via secondary messenger (G protein) systems = signal transduction pathway - GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid

36. What are phagosomes
Outer ear= pinna (auricle)- external auditory canal - eardrum (tympanic membrane) inner ear= malleus - incus - stapes - ...oval window - cochlea - where sound is transduced into neural signal...enters cochlea at scala vestibuli - where pressure chang
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i

37. What does peptic refer to in general
Digestion
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Fallopian tubes

38. What is the function of the loop of Henle
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
Focuses light thru the vitreous humor onto retina; acts as a converging lens (image is real - inverted)
Increases solute conc and osmotic pressure of the ***medulla

39. Alpha - amylase found where
cornea (1.4 refractory index; bends light) - pupil (size of pupil is determined by contraction state of the iris) - aqueous humor
Formed in kidney (nephron) - sent thru renal pelvis - down ureter to bladder - drained by urethra'
Changes: volume of filtrate does not change: osmolarity of filtrate --->reabsorbed ions like sodium carry water across membrane
In mouth - breakdown of starch into polysaccharides

40. Where do pancreatic secretions take effect
Corpus luteum degrades into corpus albicans
PNS- Somatic - afferent (dorsal root ganglion) + efferent (ventral horns) PNS- ANS- afferent (sensors on viscera) + SYMP - PARA pre - post - ganglionic neurons
Carbohydrates are highly hydrated: one water mol per carbon mol - fats are anhydrous: contain more reduced carbons per unit mass - altogether fats contain 6X energy per unit mass
On the chyme exiting the stomach and entering duodenum thru the pyloric sphincter

41. Anterior eye vs. posterior eye
Water flows from the tubule - concentrating the filtrate - raising BP
Creates one ovum (23 N) and three polar bodies
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose
Determined by whether in front of or behind the lens

42. cytosol pH
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
About 7.2
Lysosome
Faces the lumen

43. calcitonin

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44. Spinal cord horns (thick knobs) point
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Estradiol (estrogen - steroid horm); prepares uterine wall for pregnancy; just before ovulation - release of estradiol stims LH in pos feedback
90-140 mg/dl
Ventrally (picture skeletal vertebrae)

45. Four tissues
Direction of differentiation
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
Synthesizes lipids (including steroids); detoxifies drugs; is continuous with lumen

46. pancreatic amylase is much stronger than
Gastrulation occurs: formation of three primary germ layers = differentiation
Focuses light thru the vitreous humor onto retina; acts as a converging lens (image is real - inverted)
Moves down thru esophageal sphincter
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages

47. Embryology
Abdominal cavity - which is coated in serous fluid
90-140 mg/dl
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...
Carry signals to musc OR Gland

48. What kind of cells make up epithel tiss of stom - then sm intest?
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
Normally contracted
Increases solute conc and osmotic pressure of the ***medulla
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu

49. For focal point that is nearby - what will the lens look like
Visceral layer= parietal layer; serous membrane is the container of the coelom/peritoneal cavity
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Stom= G cells (gastrin) - parietal (oxyntic); chief (peptic); mucous cells (hi ER - Golgi to make sticky glycoprots) - sm intest= enterocytes (w/brush border of maltase - sucrase - lactase - dextrinase; peptidase; lipase; nucleases); goblet cells (mu
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle

50. Aldosterone (sodium uptake - potassium secretion)
- parietal cells (**oxyntic= hi oxygen consumption - hi E??): have hi conc mito; need lots of energy to create proton gradient; thus - responsible for extremely harsh pH conditions in stom; denaturing conditions - chief cells (peptic): synthesize pep
Steroid; target tissue is distal convoluted tubule of nephron and collecting duct; increases blood mineral concentration; potassium - protons secreted (blood pH increases); sodium - chloride reabsorbed (BP increases)
Spinal cord ventral horns; somatic motor neurons use acetylcholine for NTs (voluntary)
Ganglion

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MCAT Prep - 2

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