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MCAT Prep - 2

Subjects : mcat, science

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1. Polypeptides are formed with what kind of reaction?
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Eukaryotes
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0
Dehydration reaction; broken apart with enzyme - catalyzed hydrolysis

2. gametes are haploid
Polysaccharides w/proteoglycans attached = glycosaminoglycans; often give pliability
Zygotes are diploid
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)

3. What does portal vein do
Contains hydrolytic enzymes; thus - digests endocytosed substances; derived from golgi
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Travels vas deferens - urethra; mixes with prostate fluids - seminal vesicles - couper's gland - etc
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein

4. Embryology
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume
5
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot

5. when thinking of proteins - think
Nitrogen
Zygotes are diploid
'tones the bone'; decreases free Calcium conc; acts opposite to parathyroid hormone; thyroid polypeptide
Liver is the control center for blood glucose; is fed by portal vein from sm intest

6. 90% digestion - absorption occurs in...
Small intestine; duodenum is smallest and does most DIGESTION; jejunum is medium and does most ABSORPTION; ileum is biggest and does most absorption along with jejunum
Excretes waste products: urea - uric acid - ammonia - phosphate - maintains homeostasis: including body fluid volume (water reabsorption) and solute composition (mineral balance - nutrient reabsorption) - controls *plasma* pH: antiport of Na/K and pr
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system
Oxidizes macromolecules; breaks down very long - chain FAs by beta - oxidation; products (acetyl - CoA) are shuttled to mitochondrion for citric acid cycle

7. insulin secreted by
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)
Beta cells
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
Regulated by gastrointestinal horms

8. Does bile digest fat?
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
It is the animal counterpart of starch; it is more highly- branched - thus releases more glucose monomers upon repeated hydrolysis than starch
About 7.2

9. After meiosis II - Female

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10. What is an endorphin?
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
An endogenous morphine
Inner lining of blood vessels
Cancer; apop can be programmed cell death; mitochon can play important role in apop

11. hypothalamus - AP - ACTH - cortisol release from adrenal cortex
'The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein - because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.'
Travels vas deferens - urethra; mixes with prostate fluids - seminal vesicles - couper's gland - etc
At the first capillary bed of the nephron called the glomerulus which is encased by ***Bowman's capsule
Result: stress reaction; increase glycogenolysis - gluconeogenesis; fat/prot breakdown; increase blood glucose

12. What is the adventitia?
Glycosaminoglycans - prots - AAs - lipids
Outermost layer of blood vessel
Transfer signals from neuron - neuron; 90% of neurons are interneurons
Number of centromeres - Not number of chromatids eg - two sister chromatids connected by one centromere = one chromosome

13. Posterior pituitary hormones (Small Peptides)
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Oxytocin and ADH (aka vasopressin)
Salivary amylase; both hydrolyze glycosidic linkages
Digestion

14. Embryology
Lots of water - minerals (electrolyte balance) - vitamins (aided by gut bacteria)
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
Processes: axons - dendrites
Zygote - morula (first four days) - blastocyst (4 day+; implants in uterine lining) - gastrula (2 week) - neurula (3 week)...

15. Meiosis I Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
All carbs absorbed at enterocytes are carried to liver by portal vein
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
Direction of differentiation

16. fat digestion is time - intensive
Organs
Zygote (fertilization in fallopian tubes); morula (up to 8 cells - undifferentiated ie totipotent); blastocyst (4+ days - implants into uterus; HCG secretion stims corpus luteum; gradually placenta replaces HCG as estrogen/progest source; cells not t
Needs time for bile - lipase - micelle migration - enterocyte uptake
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion

17. On what surface of the retina is the eye most sensitive
Fovea (highest amount of cones)
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
CARB- Digesting: dextrinase (polysachs produced by hydrolysis of starch) - maltase (glucose - glucose) - sucrase (glucose - fructose) - lactase (galactose - glucose) - Protein- Digesting: peptidases - NUCLEOTIDE- Digesting: nucleosidases
Gastric inhibitory pep; increase of pancreatic - enz activating enzymes (which cleaves zymogens like trypsinogen); increased gall bladder contraction; decreases stomach mobility

18. Neuronal cell bodies have extensions ie
Facilitated diffusion: no symport w/ secondary transport
Processes: axons - dendrites
Ups bicarbonate secretion by pancreas; raises pH to 6.0
Normally contracted

19. Glucose is a .... sugar; fructose is a .... sugar
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
Signal picked up by sensory cell - goes thru dorsal root ganglion to SC - may continue to interneurons in brain or simple reflex arc in SC - brain integrates info and decides (voluntary) response - travels back down SC to appropriate ventral root gan
Alpha 1-4 and 1-6 (branching) glycosidic linkages
Glucose = aldose fructose = ketose

20. Four tissues
Inner lining of circulatory system
Nitrogen
Nervous - muscle - epithelial (defines inner/outer) - connective (extensive matrices)
Reconstituted into TAGs at smooth ER; first stop for most digested fat is liver

21. Energy from fat - prot - gluc
Food is digested from mouth to stomach (denaturation by gastric acid - digested by pepsin) to duodenum (more digestion); then absorption occurs in jejunum and ileum
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood
FAT=9 cal per gram Carbs=4.5 cal per gram - Prot=4 cal per gram - these seem to be for anhydrous forms
Glands w/ducts: Exocrine glands

22. What is the net effect of the loop of Henle
RBCs - large proteins; What does enter is called the filtrate
REABSORPTION: draws off water and ions - increases osmolarity of the medulla while slightly lowering osmolarity of the filtrate -->medulla must have hi osmolarity in order to concentrate urine at collecting duct (final step in nephron)
- enterocytes w/ *microvilli brush border*: membrane - bound digestive enzymes for carbs - fats - nucleic acids - goblet cells: secrete mucous - Deep between villi are the intestinal exocrine glands - the crypts of Lieberkuhn - which secrete pH 7.6 i
Apoproteins attach to outside of globules; these move to Golgi and are released into interstitial fluid via exocytosis as chylomicrons --->most go to lacteal system

23. Anatomy of the villi
Peristalsis (esophagus) and segmentation (bi - directional=mixing)
Contain capillary network - lymph vessels (lacteals)
Fat synthesis; carbs stored as free fatty acids - esterified to TAGs (requires small amount of E)
Travels vas deferens - urethra; mixes with prostate fluids - seminal vesicles - couper's gland - etc

24. For focal point that is nearby - what will the lens look like
Lens will be rounded; contraction of the lens (ie focusing) is done by ciliary muscle
Fallopian tubes
Ectoderm: outer coverings - nervous system Mesoderm: between covering ie musc - bone - etc - endoderm: digestive tract - viscera
Uncontracted: parasymp (eg opoid use)

25. Where does fertilization occur
Spike in estrogen - LH levels; secondary follicle bursts - releases into body cavity - swept along by fimbriae
via symport - secondary transport (ie by pre - established - ATP- intensive) with Na gradient into enterocyte......with no Na gradient (ie without ATP) carbohydrate monomers could not be transported in
Fallopian tubes
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt

26. physiology of gall bladder - liver and pancreatic secretions
TAGS--->FFAs; remember that FFAs are broken down for energy in mito matrix by beta - oxidation
Combined via conjunction of pancreatic duct and common bile duct; common bile duct originates at **cystic duct where gall bladder and liver secretions combine ..cystic duct+common bile duct+pancreatic duct --->into duodenum
Follicular phase: primary - secondary - ovulation (1 week) luteal phase: ovulation - thickening of uterine lining w/corpus luteum secretion - corpus luteum degrades (2 weeks) flow: shedding of uterine lining (4 days)
Peptide; stims growth of nearly all cell of body; all other anterior pituitary horms have specific targets; upregulates anabolic pathways; use of fat for energy goes up (fat - burning); increases AA transport across cell membrane (nutrient uptake)

27. keep in mind that enterocyte is like a regular euk cell
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme
Has memb - bound organelles - etc...
Prophase II: no crossing over b/c there are no homologous chromosomes; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate - migrate to opp poles Telophase II: nuclear envelope reap
An endogenous morphine

28. mucus cells line the stomach...
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit
Contain rough ER and Golgi to make mucous; mucous is full of **glycoprots (sticky) and electrolytes*; protects epithelial tiss of stomach from low pH and lubricates stomach
**NO*** lipase digests fat; no bonds broken by bile; only opens up more SA for lipase
Zygote (morula) composed of eight or more cells; All cells at this stage are TOTipOTENT STEM Cells: do not grow - form by cleavage

29. Meiosis I Metaphase I
Sorts - modifies - concentrates proteins from the ER
Membrane - bound - endocytosed bodies
Homologous chromosomes line up w/ attachment of spindle fibers/microtubule polymers to centromeres via kinetochores; identical in appearance under light microscope to metaphase of mitosis
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate

30. Ovum development is halted At what stage until fertilization...
Epithelial tissue near semniferous tubules
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
Adrenal gland -- AC: steroids (cortisol - aldosterone); AM: catecholamines (epi - norepi); Islets of langerhans: peptides (insulin/glucagon) ANTAGONISTS: calcitonin (thyroid - peptide lowers Ca in blood); parathyroid hormone - peptide - vitamin D pat
Ganglion

31. signal transduction occurs by 2 paths
1) by integral ion channels 2) transmitted by second messenger system
Lipoproteins; albumin carries free fatty acids when fat is mobilized from adipose tissue - etc
Nitrogen
Liposome has phospholipid bilayer

32. Creating gradients requires what?
At the collecting duct: becomes more permeable to water which passively diffuses *into the medulla* concentrating the urine
Peripheral nervous sys
Gall bladder - pancreatic secretions increase - arrive via ampulla of vater (duct glands); insulin secretion increases (fed state; ductless glands)
Lots of energy; eg neurons have hi glucose need for 3Na out 2K in ATPase; stomach epithel tiss needs E for parietal cells to pump protons into lumen and bicarbonate into blood

33. axon hillock physiology
- filtration occurs at the fenestrations of the renal corpuscle - most reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal tubule - medulla is concentrated in the loop of henle - sodium and calcium are reabsorbed in the distal tubule -->collecting tubul
Lumen (ie continuous w/body cavity) and cytosol
Protein digestion begins in stomach; low pH denatures proteins - kills bacteria; mixes - stores food and destroys it to chyme (BOLUS-->CHYME)
Conjunction of cell body w/axon

34. remaining secondary follicle becomes
(diploid organism) humans are part of gametic life cycle ie produce gametes; diploid germ - line stem cells undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes
Determination is a pre - programmed fate - differentiation is the actual materialization of that fate
The crypts of Lieberkuhn: sm intestine pH is not right; brush border enzs won't work right
Corpus luteum; secretes estradiol - progesterone throughout pregnancy OR if no pregnancy - for about 2 weeks (till menstruation = shedding of uterine lining)

35. What is main difference is signal transmission in nicotinic vs muscarinic?
cornea (1.4 refractory index; bends light) - pupil (size of pupil is determined by contraction state of the iris) - aqueous humor
***nicotinic is ionotropic; muscarinic is GPCR
Homologous chromosomes separate - migrate towards opposite poles/centrioles
Pepsin - secreted by chief cells in the stomach epithelial lining and active at low pH - breaks down proteins to polypeptides. Protein hydrolysis is aided by the highly acidic environment (hi gastric acid from parietal cells). Polypeptides are squirt

36. Three stages of the menstrual cycle
Secreted by delta cells of Islets of langerhans; inhibits insulin and glucagon; slows digestion
Hypothalamus --->AP--->target tissues eg TSH - thyroid - T3/T4 release - increase basal metabolic rate
Vitamin K - b12 - thiamin - riboflavin
Follicular (proliferative)= 8d - Luteal (post - ovulation; corpus luteum secretions)= 13d - Menstruation (shed uterine lining if no implantation)= 5

37. Kidney physiology...

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38. What is the mesentery?
Note: enteric= small intestine - double layer of peritoneum that suspends jejunum/ileum from posterior abdominal wall = connective tissue
Organs
At metaphase II of meiosis II (halted during reductional division); if fertilized - process continues toward haploid gamete
Follicular (proliferative)= 8d - Luteal (post - ovulation; corpus luteum secretions)= 13d - Menstruation (shed uterine lining if no implantation)= 5

39. Difference between euk and prok flagella
Urine enters kidneys via artery - to arteriole - capillary bed - glomerulus - Bowman's capsule - proximal tubule - loop of henle (concentrates medulla) - distal tubule - collecting tubule - collecting duct (renal pyramids) - renal calyx - renal pelvi
Night vision
Nourishes follicle growth; stimulates granulosa cell growth around primary oocyte at puberty = primary follicle; also - stimulates Sertoli cells in males
Bacterial flagellin: hollow filament (not microtub); euk: 9+2 microtubule w/dynein bridges

40. Gastrin from G cells stims parietal cells...
Facilitated diffusion from hi to lo conc
Raises BP; causes collecting ducts at end of nephron (kidney) to become permeable to water - which concentrates urine; coffee - beer block ADH and increase urine volume
Tight regulation of parietal cells needed b/c gastric acid secretion is E- intensive; parietal cells are hi in mitochons
Focuses light thru the vitreous humor onto retina; acts as a converging lens (image is real - inverted)

41. Different organs working together
Systems (eg digestive system consists of many organs)
Moves down thru esophageal sphincter
Posterior pituitary hormone; acts on uterus - mammary glands; causes uterine contractions - milk ejection
To the organelle w/ lumen: smooth ER; they are resynthesized into TAGs

42. What is endothelium?
Lowers osmolarity of the filtrate (IONS - Water Are Taken Back Up By The Kidney)--->at the end of the distal tubule (the collecting tubule) is where aldosterone acts - along with the JGA
Gall bladder - pancreatic secretions increase - arrive via ampulla of vater (duct glands); insulin secretion increases (fed state; ductless glands)
Inner lining of blood vessels
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus

43. size of chylomicrons (fat + apoproteins) vs lipoproteins ('cholesterol')
(haploid organism) many fungi and protozoa; individuals are typically haploid; fertilization may occur with immediate meiosis back to haploid state
Chylomicrons are much bigger
Testosterone and estradiol
Form barrier to extracellular fluid

44. motor (efferent) neurons --> VENTRAL
Most absorption occurs in sm intestine
Albumin increases osmolarity of blood; increases osmotic pressure
Carry signals to musc OR Gland
Peptide; responsible for luteal surge (driven in part by LH-->testosterone -->estradiol -->LH positive feedback); results in ovulation (follicle bursting) - releasing egg into fallopian tube/oviduct

45. cytosol pH
Alpha cells; stims gluconeogenesis in liver; acts via cAMP second messenger
Moves thru lymph sys; emptied into large veins (thus into bloodstream) of the neck at Thoracic duct
Result is proton secreted into lumen - bicarbonate into interstitial fluid (diffuses into blood); result is also increased blood pH and decreased pH stomach
About 7.2

46. in mammals - gastrulation involves formation of the
AAs enter bloodstream for uptake by all cells (esp liver). If intracellular prot conc is at max AAs can be converted to fats or glucose via gluconeogenesis. Byproduct of gluconeo is ammonia --->urea.
An ether phospholipid; hi conc in myelin; thus - hi conc in heart tiss - nervous tiss
Primitive streak - which consists of cells of the MESODERM ****
Travels vas deferens - urethra; mixes with prostate fluids - seminal vesicles - couper's gland - etc

47. bile + fat forms
Zygotes are diploid
Micelles; micelles transport lipase products to enterocytes for absorption at brush border
Secondary follicle: Theca cells differentiate from interstitial tissue - surround follicle - secrete testosterone when stimd by LH (compare to Leydig cells)
Smooth ER

48. peroxisome is derived from this
ER
Micelles; micelles (made of bile) go back and forth between brush border and chyme
Paracrine (local) - endocrine (longer distance)
Mouth - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - jejunum - ileum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - sigmoid colon - rectum - anus

49. pancreas secretes enzymes via
Many modern drugs are ligands for GPCRs
Pancreatic duct (made of acinar cells?)
Salivary amylase (weak); sm intest amylase (breaks down large polysaccharides)
75% water/ 25% solid mass: of that solid mass: 10-20% fat = phospholipid bilayer of bacteria - slough - off enterocytes ie stomach lining (must be constantly rebuilt) 10-20% inorganic material 30% roughage = fiber = cellulose (indigestible) 2-3% prot

50. A contracted iris occurs with what kind of stimulation
Parathyroid hormone (peptide; increases blood Ca); thus - might increase osteoclast/decrease osteoblast activity
Sympathetic: dilates pupil (for night hunting)
**only para effectors have muscarinic receptors; symp effectors are adrenergic (epi - norepi); **neuromuscular junction uses nicotinic receptors
visual (rhodopsin is receptor - derived from Vit A; conformation change occurs with photon to hyperpolarize rod cells; cone cells use photopsin for receptor) - olfactory - mood (NTs targeted by antidepressants - antipsychotics - etc; GABA is inhibit

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